AP Psychology Unit 6 (Learning)

Mrs. Weck 2025-26

Behavioral Perspective

The study of how observable behaviors are learned through interactions with the environment

Classical Conditioning

When a stimulus becomes associated with another stimulus that automatically triggers a response

• If a dog hears a bell before getting food, it eventually salivates when it hears the bell even with no food

Acquisition

The early stage of learning when a response is first being linked to a new stimulus

• When the dog starts to learn that the bell predicts food and begins salivating

Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)

A stimulus that naturally & automatically triggers a response without any learning needed.

• After a dog smells food (UCS), it starts to salivate (UR)

Unconditioned Response (UR)

A natural, automatic reaction to an unconditioned stimulus without any learning needed.

• A dog starts to salivate (UR), when it smells food (UCS)

Conditioned Stimulus (CS)

A previously neutral stimulus that triggers a learned response after being paired with a UCS

• A whistle (formerly a UCS) now makes a dog salivate (CR) because it associates the sound with food

Conditioned Response (CR)

A learned response that occurs when a CS is presented

• A dog salivates (CR) after hearing a whistle (CS) because it associates the sound with food.

Extinction

The process by which a CR weakens & eventually disappears when the CS is repeatedly presented without the US

• A dog stops salivating (CR) after hearing a whistle (CS) because food (US) stops being provided.

Spontaneous Recovery

The reappearance of a previously extinguished CR after a period of rest

• A dog begins to salivate (CR) again after having no reaction to a whistle (CS) for a few weeks

Stimulus Discrimination

The ability to differentiate between similar stimuli and respond differently to them

• A dog only salivates when hearing a referee whistle, not an Aztec death whistle

Stimulus Generalization

When a learned response occurs to similar stimuli, not just the CS

• A dog salivates when hearing the sound of any whistle, not just a referee whistle (CS)

Higher-Order Conditioning

When a new, neutral stimulus becomes a CS by being paired with an already existing CS

• After establishing a whistle as a CS, a red light is turned on along with the sound of the whistle during the dog’s feeding time. Now, when the dog sees red lights, it starts to salivate as well.

Counterconditioning

Changing a CR to something more desirable by pairing it with a different stimulus

• A child who fears dogs is told to practice breathing techniques when around them. Over time the fear (CR) is replaced with a calmer response.

Taste Aversion

A strong dislike for a food that develops after getting sick from it

One-Trial Conditioning

Learning that happens after just one pairing of two things

• A child gets bitten by a dog and now avoids being near them at all costs

Biological Preparedness

The theory that organisms are naturally predisposed to learn certain fears/associations quickly because they helped their ancestors

Habituation

Decreased response to a stimulus after repeated exposure

• You stop noticing the loud city sounds after living in New York for a few months

Law of Effect

Behaviors followed by favorable outcomes are more likely to be repeated, while behaviors followed by unfavorable outcomes are less likely to be repeated

Operant Conditioning

A type of learning in which behaviors are strengthened or weakened by reinforcement or punishment

Positive Reinforcement

Increasing a behavior by adding something pleasant

• Giving a kid a sticker for participating in class causing the kid to be more likely to participate again

Negative Reinforcement

Increasing behavior by removing something unpleasant after the behavior occurs

• Buckling your seatbelt to make the annoying beeping stop causing a person to be more likely to buckle up

Positive Punishment

Decreasing a behavior by adding something unpleasant

• A teacher gives extra homework to students who talk, making them less likely to talk during class again

Negative Punishment

Decreasing a behavior by removing something pleasurable

• A teen loses phone privileges after missing curfew, making them less likely to break curfew again

Primary Reinforcers

Rewards that are naturally satisfying because they meet basic biological needs

• using food, water, warmth, etc. as rewards to increase behaviors

Secondary Reinforcers

Rewards that are satisfying because they are linked to primary reinforcers or other desirable outcomes

• Money (can be used to buy food)

• Trophies (prove your skill to others)

Shaping

Gradually teaching a behavior by rewarding small steps that get closer & closer to a desired behavior

• A coach praises a gymnast for first touching her toes, then for going lower, then for doing a full split as desired

Instinctive Drift

When animals go back to their natural instincts instead of learned behaviors through training

• A dolphin who was taught to jump through hoops now misbehaves because it wants to hunt fish

Superstitious Behavior

When behaviors are repeated because a person thinks they cause a certain outcome, even when they don’t

Learned Helplessness

When when someone stops trying to change a situation because past failures taught them that no matter the effort, it won’t work

Continuous Reinforcement

Reinforcing a desired behavior every time it occurs

Partial Reinforcement

Reinforcing a behavior only some of the time it occurs (leads to slower extinction, but less consistent responding)

Fixed Ratio

A reinforcement schedule where a reward is given after a set number of responses

• A game rewards players with a treasure chest after every 10 levels they complete

Variable Ratio

A reinforcement schedule where a reward is given after an unpredictable number of responses

• Slot machines pay out after a random number of lever pulls which keeps gamblers playing because the next pull might be the winner

Variable Interval

A reinforcement schedule where a reward is given after unpredictable amounts of time

• Social media likes (reward) come at random times, so a man keeps checking Instagram throughout the day

Fixed Interval

A reinforcement schedule where a reward is given after a set amount of time has passed

• An office worker is paid every two weeks

Cognitive Maps

A mental representation of spatial layouts

• A freshman asks for directions to the cafeteria, & a senior points them to the right location using their mental map of the school

Latent Learning

Learning that happens without any obvious reinforcement & only shows up later when needed

• A freshman learns the layout of his school by merely walking to classes. Eventually, he needs to take a shortcut he has not used before and knows exactly where to go.

Insight Learning

A sudden realization to the solution of a problem (the answer just “clicks” without trial and error)

Vicarious Conditioning

Learning by observing the consequences of someone else, not through your own direct experience.

Social Learning Theory

People learn behaviors by observing & imitating other people

Scalloped Graph (Fixed Interval)

• Post-reward pause: Decreased behavior after a reward is given because additional responses are not rewarded with immediate reinforcement

• Increasing response rate: Behavior increases as reinforcement gets closer until a reward is given

• ex: A person works slowly after payday (PRP), but works harder as the next paycheck approaches (IRR)