Biology II FINAL (digestion and metabolism, renal system, reproductive system,

ATP

cata(adenosine triphosphate) main energy source that cells use for most of their work

catabolic metabolism

metabolic pathways that breakdown molecules into smaller units to release energy or to use in anabolic reactions

anabolic metabolism

metabolic pathways that construct macromolecules like DNA from smaller subunits

ANerobic metabolism

occurs in the cytosol of the cell
results in: 2 pyruvate, 2 ATP, and 2 NADH
pyruvate can be fermented into lactic acid

AERobic metabolism

occurs in the mitochondria
puts pyruvate through the citric acid cycle
results in: NADH, FADH2
electron transport chain produces: 32 ATP and water

metabolic rate

how fast glucose is turned into ATP
measured by how much oxygen is consumed in a given amount of time

recovery metabolism

An animal's elevated consumption of oxygen following activity.

oxygen demand

How much oxygen the body needs
depends on activity level and body mass

diet energy use

70% of energy use is accounted for by basic life processes: food consumption and digestion, respiration and circulation, and maintaining homeostasis
physical activity accounts for the other 30% of energy use

body weight and diet

animals take in more food than they use to increase their body weight (repetition of this causes obesity)
using more energy than one takes in reduces body weight (repetition causes malnourishment)

essential amino acids

Amino acids that are needed, but cannot be made by the body; they must be eaten in foods

methods of feeding

suspension filter feeding, suction feeding, jaws/teeth

temporomandibular joint

The joint that connects the mandible to the skull
-allows food to be mechanically broken down before being swallowed

teeth

specialized teeth evolved to be arranged to efficiently process the animal's diet

types of teeth

incisors- specialized for biting
canines- specialized for piercing prey
premolars and molars- adapted for crushing and shredding tougher food

digestion

breaking down food into smaller components

absorption

transferring the broken down products into the bloodstream

foregut

mouth, esophagus, stomach
digestion begins in the mouth

amylase

Enzyme in saliva that breaks the chemical bonds in starches

lipase

pancreatic enzyme necessary to digest fats

Pharynx

connects the mouth and nasal cavity to the throat

Epiglottis

prevents food/water from entering the trachea

Esophagus

A muscular tube that connects the mouth and pharynx to the stomach.

gizzard

birds, crocodilians, and earthworms have a gizzard
helps break down food into smaller pieces

gastrin

hormone secreted in the stomach that regulates stomach acid production; controlled by a negative feedback loop

protection from stomach acid

stomach lining secretes mucus to create a barrier from the acid
digestive enzymes are secreted in an inactive form activated by stomach acid

pepsin

primary digestive enzyme in the stomach
secreted as inactivated pepsinogen
breaks down proteins into amino acids

Peristalsis

food being physically moved through the stomach
-waves of contraction and relaxation by smooth muscle surrounding the organ

pyloric sphincter

where digestive enzyme liquid is moved out of the foregut and into the midgut

duodenum

first part of the midgut
-aided by gallbladder and pancreas

pancreas

secretes bicarbonate to neutralize stomach acid, and digestive enzymes, including trypsin

trypsin

an enzyme from the pancreas that digests proteins in the small intestine

secretin

Digestive hormone that stimulates the pancreas to release bicarbonate to neutralize acid in duodenum.

gallbladder

stores bile

CCK (cholecystokinin)

increases release of bile when there is an increase of lipids or proteins

small intestine

covered with folds and finger-like projections called villi
cells in the villi end in tiny projections called microvilli
the maximizes SA for absorption of nutrients

glucose in small intestine

glucose is co-transported into the intestinal cells with Na
passive glucose transport proteins then facilitate the movement of glucose into the blood stream

hindgut

large intestine
-absorption of water
-absorption of minerals
-elimination of waste

renal system purpose

osmoregulation- balancing water and solutes within the body
elimination of nitrogenous waste products

solutes

dissolved molecules

osmosis

Diffusion of water through a selectively permeable membrane

osmotic pressure

the tendency of a solvent to move through a membrane in order to equalize the concentration of solute

selectively permeable

a property of cell membranes that allows some substances to pass through, while others cannot

aquaporins

channel proteins in a lipid bilayer that facilitate the passage of water

Osmoconformers

keep internal fluids at the same osmotic pressure as their environment

Osmoregulators

maintain internal fluids at a stable osmotic pressure that is distinct from that of the environment

nitrogenous waste removal

when proteins and nucleic acids are broken down, ammonia is produced

Ammonia (waste product)

most toxic, requires high volumes of water

urea (waste product)

less toxic, but requires energy to produce and water to eliminate

uric acid (waste product)

least toxic, energetically most expensive

nitrogenous waste removal methods

filtration and secretion

filtration

blood is passed into an extracellular space, but some substances are prevented from returning to a blood vessel

secretion

active transport of substances from blood into an extracellular space

reabsorption

process by which essential molecules are transported back into blood after filtration

the mammalian kidney

-filter nitrogenous waste
-help regulate blood pressure/blood volume

kidney anatomy

renal artery-brings blood into the kidney
renal pelvis-where filtrate is collected
renal vein-how filtered blood is returned
the ureter leads to the urinary bladder

renal pyramids

triangular-shaped areas in the medulla of the kidney where filtration takes place

nephrons

filtering units of the kidney that remove wastes from the blood and produce urine
fill the renal pyramids along with associated capillaries

cortex

outer layer of the kidney

medulla

inner layer of the kidney

glomerulus

tuft of capillaries inside the membranous sac called a bowman's capsule

Bowman's capsule

where blood is first filtered for water, waste, and solutes

proximal convoluted tubule

the first segment of a renal tubule
-electrolytes, glucose, amino acids, sodium, and chloride are reabsorbed into the blood

loop of henle

-section of the nephron tubule that conserves water and minimizes the volume of urine
-descending side is water permeable
-ascending side is water impermeable, and actively transports electrolytes out

distal convoluted tubule

main site of secretion
-waste not filtered is added here
-regulates, K, Na, and Ca
-regulated urine pH with bicarbonate

collecting duct

permeability is regulated by ADH
ADH is secreted by the posterior pituitary to control the amount of water in the body

controlling blood pressure in the kidney

-because there is so much blood flowing through it, the kidney is an ideal location to regulate blood pressure
-specialized cells in the blood vessels leaving the glomerulus detect low or high blood pressure

Angiotensin

causes smooth muscle in the blood vessels to contract, raising blood pressure when its low

Aldosterone

released from the adrenals which increases reabsorption in the collecting ducts, which increases blood volume and pressure

asexual reproduction

A reproductive process that involves only one parent and produces offspring that are identical to the parent.

sexual reproduction

A reproductive process that involves two parents that combine their genetic material to produce a new organism, which differs from both parents

binary fission

A form of asexual reproduction in which one cell divides to form two identical cells.

budding

Asexual reproduction in which a part of the parent organism pinches off and forms a new organism

fragmentation

A means of asexual reproduction whereby a single parent breaks into parts that regenerate into whole new individuals.

parthenogenesis

Asexual reproduction in which females produce offspring from unfertilized eggs.

meiosis

Cell division that produces reproductive cells in sexually reproducing organisms
-halves the number of chromosomes
-produces gametes

fertilization

Process in sexual reproduction in which male and female reproductive cells join to form a new cell
-two gametes connect to form a zygote that grows into an embryo

two-fold cost of sexual reproduction

-takes time and energy to find a mate
-fewer offspring per reproductive cycle

hypotheses as to why asexual reproduction is not used by all

-beneficial mutations can be spread through the population via sex
-harmful mutations can be purged via sex
-red queen hypothesis

Red Queen Hypothesis

sexual selection allows hosts to evolve at a rate that counters the rapid evolution of parasites

external fertilization

The process by which the female lays eggs and the male fertilizes them once they are outside of the female
-fish and amphibians use this
-

internal fertilization

Process in which eggs are fertilized inside the female's body
-reptiles, birds, and mamals use this

K strategist vs r strategist

-reproductive strategy in which organisms reproduce late, bear few, cared for offspring (ex. humans, elephants). (k)
-produce lots of young, but leave their survival to nature (r)

oviparity

egg laying

Ovoviviparity

internal egg hatching

Viviparity

giving birth to live young
-mammals use placenta

anatomy of male gametes

head:
acrosome contains enzymes that can penetrate the outer coating of the egg
neck:
mostly contains mitochondria
tail:
flagellum used for locomotion

female gametes

eggs!
-produced in ovaries
-travels through oviduct where it is fertilized
-fertilized egg then implants itself in the uterus wall to develop

Gonadtropin-releasing hormone (GnRH)

released from the hypothalamus
-triggers the release of luteinizing hormone (LH) and Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) which then release testosterone, estrogen, and progesterone

testosterone and estrogen

control the development of secondary sex characteristics

estrogen and progesterone

control the menstrual cycle in females

menopause

cessation of menstruation when women reach a post-reproductive age

estrus cycle

heat; time period in which an animal is able to become pregnant

oogonium

cell which undergoes chromosome replication to produce a primary oocyte

Capacitation of sperm

Physiological process within the female reproductive tract by which spermatozoa gain the capacity to fertilize an oocyte
-increase motility, loss of membrane proteins, change in plasma membrane fluidity

polyspermy

fertilization by more than one sperm
-the zygote membrane is changed to become impassible to sperm to prevent this

morula

solid ball of cells

blastula

fluid filled ball of cells

Gastrulation

In animal development, a series of cell and tissue movements in which the blastula-stage embryo folds inward, producing a three-layered embryo, the gastrula.
-ectoderm, mesoderm, and endoderm are produced

Organogenesis

when the trilaminar embryo forms organs