the persistence of learning over time through the encoding, storage, and retrieval of information.
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Recall
a measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier, as on a fill-in-the-blank test.
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Recognition
a measure of memory in which the person need only identify items previously learned, as on a multiple-choice test.
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Relearning
a measure of memory that assesses the amount of time saved when learning material for a second time.
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Encoding
the processing of information into the memory system—for example, by extracting meaning.
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Storage
the retention of encoded information in the brain over time.
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Retrieval
the process of getting information out of memory storage.
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Parallel processing
the processing of many aspects of a problem simultaneously; the brain's natural mode of information processing for many functions, including vision; contrasts with the step-by-step (serial) processing of most computers and of conscious problem solving.
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Sensory memory
the immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system
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Short-term memory
activated memory that holds a few items briefly, such as the seven digits of a phone number while dialing, before the information is stored or forgotten.
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Long-term memory
the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system. Includes knowledge, skills, and experiences.
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Working memory
a newer understanding of short-term memory that focuses on conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual-spatial information, and of information retrieved from long-term memory.
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Explicit memory
memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and "declare".
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Effortful processing
encoding that requires attention and conscious effort.
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Automatic processing
unconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space, time, and frequency, and of well-learned information, such as word meanings.
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Implicit memory
retention independent of conscious recollection.
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Iconic memory
a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; a photographic or picture-image memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a second.
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Echoic memory
a momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli; if attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can still be recalled within 3 or 4 seconds.
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Chunking
organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically.
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Mnemonics
memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices.
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Spacing effect
the tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention than is achieved through massed study or practice.
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Testing effect
enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply rereading, information.
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Shallow processing
encoding on a basic level based on the structure or appearance of words.
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Deep processing
encoding semantically, based on the meaning of the words; tends to yield the best retention.
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George Miller
psychologist; found that short term memory has the capacity of about 7 (plus or minus 2) items; made famous the phrase: "the magical number 7, plus or minus 2" when describing human memory.
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Semantic memory
a network of associated facts and concepts that make up our general knowledge of the world.
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Episodic memory
the collection of past personal experiences that occurred at a particular time and place.
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Hippocampus
a neural center located in the limbic system that helps process explicit memories for storage.
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Memory consolidation
the neural storage of a long-term memory, supported by sleep.
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Flashbulb memory
the memory of emotionally significant events that people often recall with more accuracy and vivid imagery than everyday events.
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Long-term potentiation (LTP)
an increase in a synapse's firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation; believed to be a neural basis for learning and memory.
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Priming
the activation, often unconsciously, of certain associations, thus predisposing one's perception, memory, or response.
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Encoding specificity principle
the idea that cues and contexts specific to a particular memory will be most effective in helping us recall it.
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Mood-congruent memory
the tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one's current good or bad mood.
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Serial position effect
our tendency to recall best the last and first items in a list.
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Anterograde amnesia
an inability to form new memories.
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Retrograde amnesia
an inability to retrieve information from one's past.
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Proactive interference
the disruptive effect of prior learning on the recall of new information.
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Retroactive interference
the disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of old information.
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Repression
in psychoanalytic theory, the basic defense mechanism that banishes from consciousness anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories.
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Reconsolidation
a process in which previously stored memories, when retrieved, are potentially altered before being stored again.
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Misinformation effect
incorporating misleading information into one's memory of an event.
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Source amnesia
attributing to the wrong source an event we have experienced, heard about, read about, or imagined.
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Déjà vu
that eerie sense that "I've experienced this before.; cues from the current situation may subconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier experience.
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Herman Ebbinghaus
German psychologist who pioneered the experimental study of memory, and is known for his discovery of the forgetting curve and the spacing effect; he was also the first person to describe the learning curve.
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Elizabeth Loftus
her research on memory construction and the misinformation effect created doubts about the accuracy of eye-witness testimony.
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Method of loci (memory palace)
consists of associating items you want to remember with physical locations.
Studied by 16 people
