Biological Approach

Eduqas GCE A-Level Psychology - Component 1 - Biological Approach

What is the **first** assumption of the biological approach?

Behaviour can be explained by **neurotransmitters**.

What are neurotransmitters?

Chemical Messengers that are released from the vesicles of the presynaptic neurone, diffuse across the synaptic cleft before binding to the receptors of the postsynaptic neurone, stimulating an action potential.

What is **serotonin**?

A neurotransmitter linked to **mood regulation**, **sleep** and **appetite**. **Antidepressants** often work by addressing an imbalance of serotonin available at the synapse.

What is **dopamine**?

A neurotransmitter that is linked to **motivation**, **pleasure** and **productivity**. Low levels of dopamine have been implicated in **depression** and **schizophrenia**.

What is **GABA**?

A neurotransmitter that is linked to **calming** - it **inhibits other neurotransmitters**.

What is **noradrenaline**?

A neurotransmitter implicated in **panic** and controls the **fight or flight** response.

What is **oxytocin**?

A neurotransmitter that allows you to feel **safe** and feel **trust** - it is stimulated by **touch** and can lead to **pair bonding** of mother and infant.

What is the **second** assumption of the biological approach?

Behaviour can be explained by **localisation of brain function**.

What is the outer layer of the **brain**?

The **cortex** - it is highly folded to increase the surface area.

What are the functions of the **frontal lobe**?

* **Higher Cognitive Functioning**, e.g. problem solving.

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* Contains the **Motor Cortex**, controls movement.

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* Contains **Broca’s Area**, responsible for language articulation.

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* Controls **personality** and **abstract thinking**.

What are the functions of the **parietal lobe**?

* Integration of information from the **senses**.

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* Contains the **somatosensory cortex**, allowing for **perception**.

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* **Visuospatial Processing**, reading and maths.

What are the functions of the **temporal lobe**?

* **Understanding**, **Language** and **Memory Acquisition**.

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* Contains **Wernicke’s Area**, responsible for **language comprehension**.

What are the functions of the **occipital lobe**?

* Processes **sensory** information from the eyes.

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* Contains the **primary visual cortex**.

If the **frontal lobe** is damaged, what are the consequences?

* Loss of motor skills.
* Broca’s Aphasia
* Impulsivity
* Personality Changes

\[KEY EXAMPLE\] **Phineas Gage**

A metal rod was shoved through Gage’s head after gunpowder ignited, leaving him with **frontal lobe damage**.

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Gage could immediately stand up and walk around but experienced **severe personality changes**.

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He died from **epilepsy** at age **36**.

What is the **third** assumption of the biological approach?

Behaviour can be explained by **evolutionary influences**.

What is **evolution**?

The **gradual changes** in an **inherited characteristic** of a species over **many generations**.

What is **Buss’** theory of **mate selection**?

Buss found that **mate selection** was a universal thing, as a result of evolutionary influences.

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* Women desire **older males** as they have a **higher social status**.

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* Men seek **young childbearing women**.

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* Men find **sexual infidelity** more threatening as they cannot spend resources on a child that isn’t their own.

What is **nyctophobia**?

An **adaptive** behaviour which increased the chance of survival of our ancestors - they were **scared of the dark** because they were most vulnerable at night to other predators.

What is the **therapy** for the biological approach?

**Psychosurgery**.

What is **psychosurgery**?

A therapy based on the **medical model**.

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Psychosurgery is a **last resort** after all other therapies have failed due to the risks involved.

What is the **medical model**?

Mental health disorders are caused physiological issues and therefore should be treated the same as physical issues.

What is the **prefrontal leucotomy**?

* **Burr holes** are drilled into the skull.
* **Leucotones** are inserted to **sever white matter**.

→ *Usually disconnects the frontal lobe in order to treat* ***schizophrenia****,* ***bipolar disorder*** *and* ***anxiety****.*

What is the **transorbital lobotomy**?

* An **orbitoclast** is forced through the **eye sockets** to pierce the thin bone which separates the eyes and the frontal lobe.
* The **orbitoclast** is then **inserted into the frontal lobe** and moved around in order to **sever nerve connections**.

→ *Used to treat* ***bipolar disorder*** *and* ***depression****.*

What is the **bilateral cingulotomy**?

Targets an area of the brain within the **limbic system**, which is responsible for **integration of feelings and emotion**.

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* Brain Scans are conducted in order to map out the **cingulate cortex**.
* **Burr Holes** are drilled into the skull and **lesions** are made in the target area with the help of inserted **electrodes**.
* A **gamma knife** (a **beam of radiation**) is used to burn away tissue, severing nerve connections.

→ *This was used to treat disorders such as* ***OCD****.*

What is **deep brain stimulation**?

Electrodes are implanted within certain areas of the brain.

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* Uses **MRI** or **CT** imaging to identify the target brain areas.


* These electrodes produce **electrical impulses** that **regulate abnormal impulses**.
* The amount of stimulation is controlled by a **pacemaker-like** device placed under the skin in the upper chest.

State two **strengths** of psychosurgery.

* **Cosgrove and Rauch** **(2001)** found that cingulotomies were effective in around **56%** of OCD patients and around **65%** for major affective disorder patients.
* **DBS** is an effective tool for research as well as treatment. It can be used to **pinpoint where and when activity occurs** in the brain better than methods such as EEG or fMRI.

State four **weaknesses** of psychosurgery.

* **NICE (2021)** reviewed the evidence of the use of DBS for treatment of OCD, they suggested that the safety and efficacy of DBS is inadequate in quality and quantity and therefore not recommended as a treatment for OCD.
* **Szaz (1978)** criticised psychosurgery in general as he believes that a person’s psychological self is not something physical and therefore, it does not make sense to suggest that it can be operated on.
* There is an issue with **valid consent** for psychosurgery as someone with severe mental health disorders may **not be in the right state of mind to consent** to a surgery that could kill them - e.g. it would be impossible to gain consent from a hallucinating schizophrenic.
* Psychosurgery could **permanently harm** a person as it cannot be reversed - there is a significant possibility that the patient may end up in a worse condition than before the surgery.

What is the **classic research** for the biological approach?

**Raine, Buchsbaum and LaCasse** - Brain Abnormalities in Murderers

using Positron Emission Tomography (1997).

What was the **aim** of Raine et al.’s research?

To look at direct measures of both **cortical** (*on the cortex, e.g. motor cortex and the lobes*) and **subcortical** (*beneath the cortex, e.g. hypothalamus*) brain functioning using **PET scans** in a group of **NGRI** murderers.

What is meant by an **NGRI** murderer?

Murderers who pleaded **not guilty** due to reason of **insanity**.

Where did Raine believe that the murderers would show evidence of brain dysfunction?

**Prefrontal Cortex**, **Angular Gyrus**, **Amygdala**, **Hippocampus**, **Thalamus** and the **Corpus Callosum** - all brain areas previously linked to violence.

Where did Raine believe that the murderers would show **no** evidence of brain dysfunction?

**Caudate**, **Putamen**, **Globus Pallidus**, **Midbrain** and the **Cerebellum** - whilst implicated in other psychiatric conditions, they had not been implicated in violent behaviours.

What was the **experimental design** of Raine et al.’s research?

**Matched Pairs**

→ *because they matched participants to the* ***control group*** *based on mental health disorder, age and sex.*

Why did Raine et al. use a **control group**?

To provide a **baseline** for **comparison**.

What **type of experiment** did Raine et al. use?

**Quasi Experiment**

→ *they did not manipulate the independent variable*.

What was the **independent variable** in Raine et al.’s research?

Whether someone was or was not a **NGRI murderer**.

What was the **dependent variable** in Raine et al.’s research?

Levels of Brain Activity.

How many participants were in the **experimental group** in Raine et al.’s research?

**41** - 39 males and 2 females.

What was the **average age** of the experimental group in Raine et al.’s research?

**34.3**

Where were all NGRIs referred to to obtain evidence in Raine et al.’s research?

The **University of California**.

Why were some NGRI murderers referred to the University of California in Raine et al.’s research?

* Head Injury (23)
* Drug Abuse (3)
* Affective Disorder (2)
* Schizophrenia

How many participants were in the **control** group in Raine et al.’s research?

**41** - **39** males and **2** females.

What was the **average age** of the control group in Raine et al.’s research?

**31.7**.

How many control group **schizophrenics** were matched to the experimental group in Raine et al.’s research?

**6**.

How many weeks were **all** participants kept **medication free** prior to brain scanning in Raine et al.’s research?

**2 weeks**.

What form of **sampling** was used in Raine et al.’s research?

**Opportunity** sampling.

What was injected into each participant prior to brain scanning in Raine et al.’s research?

**Radioactive Fluorodeoxyglucose Tracer**.

How long did each participant have to take up the **fluorodeoxyglucose radiotracer** in Raine et al.’s research?

**32 minutes**.

During the 32 minute period, participants completed a **continuous performance task** - what was the CPT in Raine et al.’s research?

Participants were told that they will see or hear the number 1 or 2 and that they should click the mouse when presented with a 1 and not to click when presented with a 2.

What took place **10 minutes prior** to the injection in Raine et al.’s research?

Participants were allowed to **practice** the CPT.

What took place after **32 minutes** in Raine et al.’s research?

All participants were given a **PET scan**.

How many **horizontal** ‘**slices**’ of the brain were taken in Raine et al.’s research?

**10**.

What were the NGRIs compared to controls on in Raine et al.’s research?

The **glucose metabolism** in both **hemispheres** of the brain in 14 selected areas (**6 cortical** and **8 subcortical**).

What were the findings of the **prefrontal cortex** in Raine et al.’s research?

* ***Lower*** Glucose Metabolism relative to controls in both the **lateral** and **medial prefrontal cortical areas**.
* NGRIs had a ***significantly lower*** glucose metabolism for the **left** and **right medial superior frontal cortex**, **left anterior medial cortex** and the **right orbitofrontal cortex**.

Which argument surrounding neuromarketing suggests that neuroscience is ethical?

Carey and Dubuc - fMRI scans and brain function:

• fMRI scans enable researchers to isolate neural systems associated with brain function. For example, when a person looks at a print advertisement, light activates the visual neural receptors, and any information gathered is processed for shape, colour and spatial location. This triggers memories stored in the cerebral cortex, which allows the person to realise the association between what they see and what they can remember.

  • This is an ethical use of neuromarketing because it allows companies to identify products that are compatible to preferences and will peak interests. Neuromarketing in this case provides consumers with better services, particularly because people are not forced into buying things.

Which argument surrounding neuromarketing suggests that neuroscience is NOT ethical?

Humby et al - Privacy and Neuromarketing Schemes:

• Consumers’ data will no longer be private as a result of neuromarketing schemes, and in any other case it would be classified as a large data breach. The use of neuromarketing to implicitly persuade people to buy things often breaches privacy and often people do not give informed consent to being involved in neuromarketing schemes, e.g. Tesco Clubcard.

  • The Tesco Clubcard scheme incentivises more purchases with lower prices, and you gain “Clubcard points” which can be exchanged for vouchers for money off of purchases.

Which argument surrounding neuroimaging suggests that neuroscience is ethical?

Raine et al - Brain Abnormalities in NGRIs vs Non-NGRIs:

• Examined measures of cortical and subcortical brain functioning using PET scans in a group of NGRI murderers.

  • They found that murderers were characterised by reduced glucose metabolism in the prefrontal cortex, superior parietal gyrus, left angular gyrus and the corpus callosum. They also found asymmetry in the activity levels of the amygdala, thalamus and medial temporal lobe. Raine et al. suggested that abnormalities in these areas might be a predisposition for violent crimes.

  • This means that neuroscience is ethical as it allows authorities to identify potential murderers before they commit a crime, allowing time for biological deterrents and means that the public will be protected from harm.

Which argument surrounding neuroimaging suggests that neuroscience is NOT ethical?

Sexton vs State (2000):

• Sexton was convicted of first-degree murder in Florida. At his hearing, a psychologist presented a PET scan that suggested he had a diminished level of self-control, accepted by the court as evidence of brain dysfunction (e.g. he had MS). This supported Sexton's claim of suffering from extreme mental disturbance when committing the crime. Nevertheless, he was sentenced to the death penalty due to testimony that he had pre-meditatively planned to commit the murder by enlisting his mentally disabled son-in-law.

  • In this case, behavioural evidence outweighed the neuroscientific evidence which establishes the argument of the authenticity of neuroimaging and neuroscience as a whole, whilst also presenting the unethicality of is in terms of the potential trial outcomes (i.e. criminals could walk free, posing a danger to the public) despite the clear motive and calculated/cold nature of the killings.

Which argument surrounding treatment of mental health disorders suggests that neuroscience is ethical?

Cherek et al. (2002) - Serotonin and Human Aggression:

• Examined the role of serotonin in human aggression in 12 male subjects with a history of conduct disorder, six receiving a placebo and six receiving paroxetine.

  • Paroxetine is an SSRI antidepressant which increases the levels of serotonin within the brain.

• They measured impulsivity using a reward system (i.e. whoever waited longer received better rewards). They found that after 21 days of paroxetine administration, impulsivity decreased and aggression decreased. They concluded that paroxetine’s inhibition of serotonin could be used as a treatment to reduce aggression.

  • This is an ethical use of neuroscience as there is potential to offer pharmacological treatment to criminals to lower crime rates and therefore benefit society as a whole.

Which argument surrounding treatment of mental health disorders suggests that neuroscience is NOT ethical?

What is determinism?

The view that human behaviour is determined by forces beyond our control. These can be internal, i.e. genes, hormones, neurotransmitters, thought processes or unconscious drives. Or they can be external, i.e. peers, upbringing, social class or culture

What is free will?

The view that human behaviour is within our conscious control, we choose our behaviour and are not constrained by internal or external forces.

What is reductionism?

The view that human behaviour is complex, and it is better to study it in smaller components (e.g. we learn through stimulus-response links, i.e. depression is caused by low levels of serotonin - it is much more complex than that but we are oversimplifying it.).

What is holism?

Holism argues that human behaviour is too complex to be broken down and should be looked at as a whole.

What is nature?

Nature suggests that humans are a product of their biology, i.e. genes and hormones.

What is nurture?

Nurture suggests that humans are a product of their environment, i.e. culture, upbringing and socialisation.

How can the biological approach be evaluated in terms of its successful applications?

Successful applications to medicine.

• Cherek et al. (2002) examined the role of serotonin in human aggression in 12 male subjects with a history of conduct disorder - six received paroxetine (an SSRI anti-depressant used to treat PTSD and depression) and six received a placebo drug. They found that after 21 days impulsivity and aggression decreased; suggesting that there is potential for the pharmacological treatment of maladaptive behaviours like aggression.

• However, applications of the biological approach such as Deep Brain Stimulation (a form of stereotactic psychosurgery) are not as useful. NICE (2021) reviewed the evidence of the use of Deep Brain Stimulation (a stereotactic method) for the treatment of OCD. The results of the review led to the suggestion that both the safety and efficacy of DBS is inadequate and therefore should not be used as a treatment for OCD.

How can the biological approach be evaluated in terms of nature vs nurture?

It only considers the nature side of the nature vs nurture debate.

• The biological view of behaviour is incomplete - it implies that humans are a product of their genes and hormones, despite the fact that there might be a link between other environmental causes for behaviour.

• One of the biological assumptions suggests that behaviour is determined by neurotransmitters. For example, noradrenaline is responsible for the 'fight-or-flight' response - whilst the biological approach provides causal data about the strictly biological causes of behaviour, is it right to assume that there can be no environmental influences?

How can the biological approach be evaluated in terms of its determinism?

It is biologically deterministic.

• Behaviour is more predictable, leading to the development of prevention programmes, for example Raine et al.'s research on NGRI murderers and cortical/subcortical brain structure suggested that abnormalities in these areas might be a predisposition for violent crimes. This has implications as authorities can identify potential murderers before they even commit a crime, allowing time for biological deterrents (e.g. drug therapy etc.)

• The fact that it is deterministic can remove all accountability for actions - i.e. if someone committed a crime they may argue that the deterministic nature of human biology caused them to do so as they had no free will to prevent it.

How can the biological approach be evaluated in terms of its reductionism?

It is reductionist.

• The reductionist viewpoint allows for components of behaviour to be studied in detail - as it has been simplified it may be easier to develop treatments or therapies, such as psychosurgery.

• Cosgrove and Rauch (2001) found that bilateral cingulotomies are effective in 56% of OCD patients and 65% for major affective disorder patients.