Federalist Era and Constitutional Convention

Virginia Plan

Proposed by James Madison; called for three branches of government, a bicameral legislature with representation based on population, and national supremacy through a federal veto of state laws; significant because it shaped the structure of the new Constitution.

New Jersey Plan

Proposed by William Patterson; favored small states with a unicameral legislature where each state had one vote and granted Congress power to tax and regulate trade; significant because it preserved state equality and forced compromise.

Connecticut Plan/Great Compromise

Proposed by Roger Sherman and Oliver Ellsworth; created a bicameral Congress with the House based on population and the Senate based on equal representation; significant because it resolved the large vs. small state divide.

Three-Fifths Compromise

Agreement counting five enslaved people as three individuals for representation; significant because it strengthened Southern political power and embedded slavery into the constitutional framework.

Federalists (Key Members)

James Madison, Alexander Hamilton, John Jay; significant for leading the movement to ratify the Constitution and shaping early U.S. government.

Federalist Beliefs

Supported a strong central government, national supremacy, and ratification of the Constitution; significant because their vision shaped the federal structure and early policy.

Anti-Federalists (Key Members)

George Mason, Rufus King, Patrick Henry; significant for demanding protections of individual rights and resisting centralized power.

Anti-Federalist Beliefs

Opposed a strong central government and the Constitution without a bill of rights; significant because their pressure led to creation of the Bill of Rights.

The Federalist Papers

Essays written by Madison, Hamilton, and Jay defending the Constitution and explaining republican principles; significant because they influenced ratification and remain foundational political theory.

Bill of Rights

First ten constitutional amendments added to protect individual liberties, promised during ratification debates; significant because they eased Anti-Federalist concerns and secured adoption of the Constitution.

Washington’s Precedents

Included creating a Cabinet, setting the custom that presidents choose their own advisors (initially) without Senate interference, serving two terms, and selecting Supreme Court justices without relying on seniority; significant because these shaped the long-term expectations of the presidency.

Washington’s Native American Policy

Attempted to secure western lands for settlers, leading to conflict; St. Clair was defeated (1791) in Battle of the Wabash, but U.S. victory by Wayne at Fallen Timbers (1794) opened the Northwest Territory to American expansion; significant for shaping frontier settlement and weakening Native resistance.

Hamilton’s Financial Plan

Included assumption of state and national debts, creation of a National Bank, and encouragement of American manufacturing through subsidies and tariffs; significant because it stabilized U.S. credit and created the nation’s financial infrastructure.

Whiskey Rebellion (1794)

Violent protest against the federal excise tax on whiskey to help assume states’ debt; Washington sent 12,000 militia to enforce the law; significant because it demonstrated federal authority and the government’s ability to enforce its laws.

Judiciary Act (1789)

Created the federal court system with district courts, appellate courts, and the Supreme Court; significant because it established the judicial branch’s structure and authority.

Proclamation of Neutrality (1793)

Washington declared the U.S. neutral in European wars, especially between Britain and France; significant because it set the precedent for American neutrality for over a century.

Genet Affair (1793–1794)

French minister Edmond Genet tried to arm French privateers in U.S. ports and encourage American citizens to support France despite Washington’s Neutrality Proclamation; significant because Genet violated diplomatic protocol, forced Washington to demand his recall, and led to a formal U.S. neutrality policy.

Jay Treaty (1794–1795)

Treaty negotiated with Britain requiring Britain to remove forts in the Northwest Territory, granting the U.S. “most favored nation” trading status but allowing Britain to seize American goods bound for France and restricting U.S. access to the West Indies; significant because it favored British interests more than American ones, sparked fierce public outrage (Jay burned in effigy; Hamilton nearly stoned), but ultimately avoided war and gave the U.S. time to strengthen nationally.

Pinckney Treaty (1795)

Agreement with Spain granting free navigation of the Mississippi River, recognition of the 31st parallel as the Florida boundary, and removal of Spanish guarantees to militarily support the Native American tribes in the region; significant because it was a diplomatic triumph, boosted western settlement, and strengthened national unity.

Washington’s Farewell Address (1796)

Warned against political parties and “entangling alliances”; significant because it influenced U.S. foreign policy for generations and highlighted dangers of factionalism.

Election of 1796

First contested presidential election; Federalist John Adams became president and Democratic-Republican Thomas Jefferson became vice president; significant for establishing a two-party system and showing flaws in the original Electoral College system.

Alien and Sedition Acts (1798)

Result of release of XYZ documents, labeling France an enemy; Federalist laws that raised residency requirements from 5 to 14 years, allowed detention or deportation of foreigners without trial, and criminalized government criticism; significant because they targeted Democratic-Republicans adversaries and sparked a major states’ rights debate.

Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions (1798)

Written secretly by Jefferson and Madison, claiming states could judge constitutionality of federal laws and nullify unconstitutional acts; significant because they introduced the doctrine of states’ rights that later fueled the Civil War.

XYZ Affair (1797–1798)

French agents demanded a $250,000 bribe and $10 million loan from U.S. diplomats; significant because it sparked national outrage and led to the Quasi-War with France.

Quasi-War (1798–1799)

Undeclared naval conflict between the U.S. and France; led to expansion of the Navy and cancellation of the 1778 alliance; significant because it strengthened federal military power and partisan divides.

Treaty of Mortefontaine (1800)

Agreement between the U.S. and France ending the Quasi-War and dissolving the old Revolutionary War alliance; significant because it restored peace, reduced tensions, and allowed the U.S. to remain neutral amid European conflicts.

Population Growth & Demographics (1783–1801)

Population expanded rapidly mainly due to high birth rates, with fewer than one-third of Americans over age 25 by 1800; significant because rapid growth increased demand for land, pushed westward expansion, and reshaped family and community structures.

Immigration & Movement into Cities

Immigrants largely settled in Middle States and western frontier regions, while cities like Philadelphia and New York became overcrowded, disease-prone, and home to growing urban poverty; significant because early American cities struggled with sanitation, employment instability, and social inequality.

Urban Labor & Maritime Work

Seafaring became the second-largest occupation after farming and offered opportunities to the poor and African Americans, though conditions were harsh

Rural Life, Land Pressure & Family Structure

Large families and traditional inheritance practices strained available land in older colonies, pushing many to diversify farm production or seek opportunities elsewhere; significant because shrinking rural landholdings helped drive migration and early economic diversification.

Westward Expansion & Frontier Conflict

Settlers moved into Kentucky, Tennessee, and the Northwest Territory under the Northwest Ordinance (1787), often clashing with Native American tribes; significant because battles like Fallen Timbers opened the Northwest to settlement and strengthened U.S. federal presence.

Southern Agriculture & Slavery

Exhausted soil from tobacco and cotton, combined with the rise of “King Cotton,” reinforced plantation slavery and tied southern expansion to enslaved labor; significant because this deepened sectional divides and shaped long-term economic patterns.

Northern Agriculture & Early Industry

Northern farmers adopted improved agricultural methods and supplemented income through cottage industry, including textiles and crafts; significant because these practices laid the groundwork for the American Industrial Revolution.

Women’s Roles & Republican Motherhood

Women performed critical economic labor and were expected to raise moral, civically virtuous children under the ideal of “republican motherhood”; significant because it expanded women’s cultural influence despite lack of legal or political rights.

Social Inequality & Dependency

Despite growing democratic ideals, 87% of Americans were still women, children, enslaved people, or free people of color who lived in states of dependency or subordination; significant because it reveals limits to equality in the Early Republic.