Social motivation terms

Motivation

any internal process that gives behavior its energy, direction, and persistence.

Energy (of behavior)

strength or intensity of behavior.

Direction (of behavior)

purpose or goal-oriented nature of behavior.

Persistence (of behavior)

endurance or continuation of behavior over time.

Need

condition essential for life maintenance and the nurturance of growth and well-being (e.g., hunger, sleep, autonomy).

Cognition

mental events that energize and direct behavior (e.g., beliefs, goals, expectations).

Emotion

short-lived feeling-arousal-purposive-expressive phenomena that help us adapt to challenges.

Scientific study of motivation

use of empirical, objective evidence to describe and explain behavior.

Expressions of motivation

behavior, engagement, psychophysiology, brain activation, and self-report.

Unifying themes of motivation

motivation benefits adaptation, needs supportive conditions, is dynamic, has multiple types, and can occur unconsciously.

Physiological need

biological condition that regulates bodily well-being and corrects imbalances (e.g., hunger, thirst).

Psychological need

psychological nutrient essential to mental health, growth, and well-being.

Drive Theory (Clark Hull, 1943)

physiological deprivations create biological needs, which generate psychological drives that energize behavior.

Drive

psychological discomfort or tension resulting from unsatisfied biological needs.

Homeostasis

tendency to maintain a stable internal state (e.g., hydration, temperature).

Negative feedback

mechanism that stops behavior once equilibrium is restored.

Intraorganismic mechanisms

internal biological systems that regulate needs (e.g., glucose levels).

Extraorganismic mechanisms

environmental influences that affect drive (e.g., food cues).

Self-Determination Theory

theory that emphasizes intrinsic motivation driven by autonomy, competence, and relatedness.

Autonomy

need to experience self-direction and ownership over one’s behavior.

Competence

need to feel effective, capable, and master challenges.

Relatedness

need to form close, meaningful social connections.

Need satisfaction

promotes intrinsic motivation, engagement, growth, and well-being.

Need frustration

leads to maladaptive behavior and ill-being.

Autonomy support

behaviors that nurture volition (e.g., perspective-taking, explanatory rationales, patience).

Paradox of choice

too many or meaningless choices can undermine autonomy.

Reactance

increased desire to perform a restricted behavior.

Learned helplessness

expectation that outcomes are independent of one’s actions.

Flow

state of complete absorption in a task when challenge and skill are balanced.

Feedback (Cognitive Evaluation Theory)

external events can increase intrinsic motivation if they enhance autonomy and competence.

Failure tolerance

viewing errors as opportunities for growth and learning.

Self-serving bias

crediting success to self, blaming failure on external factors.

Self-handicapping

creating obstacles to justify failure.

Communal relationships

based on mutual care and concern.

Exchange relationships

based on reciprocity and obligation.

Relatedness support

understanding, validation, and caring in social interactions.

Intrinsic motivation

engaging in an activity for its inherent satisfaction and interest.

Extrinsic motivation

engaging in an activity for external rewards or to avoid punishment.

Reinforcer

stimulus that increases the likelihood of behavior.

Positive reinforcer

adds a desirable stimulus to increase behavior.

Negative reinforcer

removes an undesirable stimulus to increase behavior.

Negative punisher

removes a desirable stimulus to decrease behavior.

Effectiveness of rewards

best when tasks are uninteresting but socially valuable; should be unpredictable and intangible.

External regulation

behavior controlled by rewards or punishments.

Introjected regulation

behavior driven by guilt or internal pressure.

Identified regulation

behavior valued and accepted as personally important.

Integrated regulation

behavior aligned with one’s self and values.

Internalization

process of transforming external rules or values into internal motivation.

Integration

incorporation of internalized values into one’s identity.

Cognition

mental processes (e.g., decision-making, problem-solving) that energize and guide behavior.

Discrepancy

difference between present and ideal states that motivates change.

Discrepancy reduction

reactive effort to overcome a deficiency.

Discrepancy creation

proactive effort to pursue growth or improvement.

Goal

cognitive representation of a desired end state that directs behavior.

Goal difficulty

level of challenge; higher difficulty increases effort.

Goal specificity

clarity of what must be done; reduces ambiguity.

Goal congruence

alignment of goal with personal values (self-concordance).

Goal proximity

temporal distance; proximal goals enhance feedback and motivation.

Achievement goals

aims based on standards of excellence.

Performance goals

focus on demonstrating competence relative to others.

Learning (mastery) goals

focus on developing competence and personal growth.

Goal striving

process of maintaining effort and persistence toward goal attainment.

Mental simulation

imagining goal content or process; process-focused simulations enhance success.

Implementation intention

“if-then” plan that specifies when, where, and how to act toward a goal.

Flexibility

adapting strategies to maintain motivation and reduce burnout.

Accountability

recording or sharing goals to increase commitment.

Planning fallacy

tendency to underestimate time and effort required for a goal.