Unit 4 ID Terms (Part 1) Social Psychology

Definitions from AMSCO Book

Social Cognition

How we think about ourselves/others in social situations.

Social Situations

Influence on even controls behavior; refers to a group of two or more people or may also describe an individual alone who thinks that others are observing him or her.

Social Influence

How we are influenced by others; how we are influenced by others in a social situation.

Social Psychology

The scientific study of how we think about, influence and relate to one another; a branch of psychology that uses a scientific approach to understand how and why social groups influence individual behavior and attitudes and how, in turn, individual attitudes and behaviors affect social groups.

Social Behavior

How we behave in social situations.

Schema

A cognitive filter through which we view the world and interpret information.

Self-Schema

A construct about himself and his experiences.

Possible Selves

Aspects of ourselves that we either aspire to be or could conceivably be.

Self-Serving Biases

Tendencies to perceive ourselves in a positive light; the tendency to attribute success to internal factors while blaming failure on external situations. 

Attribution

The process of explaining why a person behaves a certain way, as a way of understanding how and why individuals explain their own behaviors, as well as the behaviors of others.

Internal Attribution

An assumption that behavior is driven by such internal characteristics as traits or feelings; Behavior that is explained as a result of personal characteristics.

External Attribution

The assumption that a person's behavior is influenced by external factors, such as the environment, other people, or situational circumstances, rather than their personal traits or characteristics; Behavior is explained as the result of unavoidable factors.

Stable Attribution

Refers to the belief that a cause of behavior is consistent and unchanging over time. For example, if a student gets an A on an exam and you assume it's because they are naturally smart, that is a stable attribution because intelligence is seen as a lasting trait.

Unstable Attribution

Refers to the belief that the cause of behavior is temporary and can change. For example, if a student gets an A and you attribute it to them studying hard for that particular exam, that is an unstable attribution because effort can vary from one situation to another.

Attribution Theory

Was first developed by Fritz Heider (1896–1988) and was later expanded by other researchers who, even into the 21st century, have used attribution theory as an investigative tool to determine the causes of behavior. Attribution theory suggests that causes of behaviors comprise two dimensions: (1) internal vs. external and (2) stable vs. unstable.

Consensus

Refers to the level of agreement among people regarding a particular opinion or behavior.

Distinctiveness

Refers to how unique or specific a person’s reaction is to a particular situation.

Consistency

Refers to how regularly a person behaves the same way in similar situations over time.

Just-World Hypothesis

Is the belief that the world is fair and that people get what they deserve. This viewpoint leads people to assume that victims must have done something to deserve their fate, reducing their perceived connection to the victim. It is a defensive and biased attribution that helps people feel safe by maintaining the illusion that bad things won’t happen to them.

Correspondent Interference Theory

Social psychologists Edward E. Jones (1926–1993) and Keith Davis of Duke University introduced the idea; This theory explains why people make internal or external attributions. It suggests that people tend to attribute others' behaviors to internal, stable traits rather than external circumstances.

Actor-Observer Bias

The tendency to attribute others' behaviors to internal factors (e.g., personality) but to explain our own behaviors using external factors (e.g., the situation). For example, if someone else is late, we might think they are irresponsible, but if we are late, we blame traffic. Attribute behaviors to situational effects when we are the actor, but attribute behavior to disposition factors when we are the observer. 

Fundamental Attribution Error

The tendency to overemphasize internal traits and ignore external factors when explaining other people’s behaviors. For example, if we see someone hitting another person, we assume they are aggressive rather than considering possible external reasons (e.g., self-defense). Tendency for observers, when observing others, to underestimate the impact of the situation and overestimate the impact of personal disposition. 

Ultimate Attribution Error

The tendency to apply the fundamental attribution error to entire groups rather than individuals. For example, if one member of a minority group commits an act of aggression, people may assume the entire group is aggressive, reinforcing stereotypes. Applying to an entire group, like gender or ethnic group.

Attitudes

Represent how you feel toward various objects; how you feel about something.

Cognitive Dissonance

A theory introduced by Leon Festinger (1919–1989) in 1957, identifies the discomfort felt when we hold two contradictory views simultaneously or act in a way that conflicts with our beliefs.

Leon Festinger

Introduced the cognitive dissonance theory.

Overjustification Effect

Refers to the phenomenon where providing external rewards for an activity that someone already enjoys reduces their intrinsic motivation for that activity.

Role Playing

An aspect of cognitive dissonance as people assume the characteristics of the roles they play.

Phillip Zimbardo

A renowned social psychologist, revealed the nature and importance of roles in his Stanford prison experiment, an experiment that was made into a movie in 2015. He wrote the lucifer effect.

Primacy Effect

The tendency of the first item to be remembered best.

Recency Effect

The tendency to remember the most recently/last presented items best.

Elaboration Likelihood

Refers to a model of attitudes and persuasion that explains how people process persuasive messages. Includes two routes: Central and Peripheral.

Central Route

Involves reason and logic and an audience highly motivated to think and make decisions about the topic at hand; change people’s attitudes through logical arguments and explanations. Leads to long term behavior change. Careful examination of a message to determine its validity.

Peripheral Route

Relies on emotion or other superficial factors, which can be effective if the audience is not especially motivated to think about the topic or to make good decisions. change people’s attitudes through incidental cues (like a speaker’s attractiveness). Leads to temporary behavior changes. Involves the use of outside factors to influence the validity of an argument.

Foot-In-The-Door Approach

Complying w/ a small request then leads to going along w/ a larger request (can I have $5? Yes. Now can I have $25?)

Door-In-The-Face Approach

A large request is turned down, when then leads you to be more likely to comply w/ a small request (can I have $100? Heck no! How about $20? Okay)

Normative Social Influence

This occurs when people conform to social norms to be accepted or avoid being judged. It is about fitting in with the group.

• Example: In Japan, slurping noodles loudly is polite, while eating quietly may be seen as rude. People follow these customs to align with social expectations.

Informational Social Influence

This occurs when people look to others for guidance when they are unsure how to behave or solve a problem. It is about gaining useful information.

• Example: If you struggle to solve a toothpick puzzle alone but find the solution after hearing group members discuss it, you are influenced by their information, not pressure.

Conformity

Is behavior that is in accord with accepted group standards.

Solomon Asch

Polish Gestalt psychologist; set out to determine to what degree other people influence our opinions—or the external expression of our opinions. In his social pressure conformity experiments at Bryn Mawr College. Conducted a famous study of Conformity (line length).

Stanley Milgram

A psychologist known for his famous obedience experiment in the 1960s.

Debrief

Refers to the process of explaining the true purpose and details of a study to participants after it has concluded, especially if deception was used.

Social Facilitation

When your performance is enhanced by the presence of others watching you perform.

Social Inhibition

If your performance is poorer when you are watched by others.

Social Loafing

Refers to the tendency for individuals to put in less effort when working in a group compared to when working alone, especially when their individual effort cannot be measured independently.

Deindividuation

Is the loss of identity as a result of participation in a larger group, which lessens the sense of personal responsibility for one’s actions and can lead to a higher degree of aggression.

Risky Shift

Tendency to shift from uncertainty about performing a task or not to making a decision with greater risk.

Group Polarization

The tendency for people to hold even more extreme views on topics after a group discussion of like-minded people.

Groupthink

The tendency to make bad decisions because of the illusion that the plan of action is a good one and is supported by all members of the group.

Illusion of Vulnerability

Refers to a group's overconfidence in its decisions, leading members to believe they are incapable of making mistakes.

Stereotypical View

Refers to a fixed and oversimplified perception of a person, group, or situation that influences decision-making.

Self-Censorship

When people hold back their opinions or doubts because they feel pressured to agree with the group.

Illusion of Unanimity

Is the false belief that everyone in a group agrees, even when some members have doubts but choose not to speak up.

Mindguards

Are people in a group who prevent opposing ideas or information from reaching the leader or the rest of the group to maintain agreement and avoid conflict.

Devil’s Advocate Method

Formal method of avoiding groupthink; An individual is assigned to be the “outsider” by questioning all group decisions and to consider an alternative view of the information or propose a different plan of action for the group to consider. Arguing for an opinion that is against what they really believe. Taking the contrary or opposite view for the sake of argument/discussion, even if they do not personally adhere to that opposing view

Dialectical Inquiry Method

Formal method of avoiding groupthink; Two subgroups work on different plans of action, and the leader of the entire group does not express his/her preference before the plans are presented. Involves dividing a group into two sides that debate opposing ideas

Minority Influence

A disproportionate influence of the minority opinion over a majority opinion under certain conditions. Small group or individual is able to change the opinions or behaviors of the majority.