APWH Midterm Review

Enlightenment

A philosophical movement which started in Europe in the 1700's and spread to the colonies. It emphasized reason and the scientific method. Writers of the Enlightenment tended to focus on government, ethics, and science, rather than on imagination, emotions, or religion. Many members of the Enlightenment rejected traditional religious beliefs in favor of Deism, which holds that the world is run by natural laws without the direct intervention of God.

Social Contract

An Enlightenment concept; an agreement between the people and their government signifying their consent to be governed; popular in the 16th-18th centuries among theorists such as Thomas Hobbes, John Locke, and Jean-Jacques Rousseau, as a means of explaining the origin of government and the obligations of subjects.

Natural Rights

rights granted to all people by nature or God that cannot be denied or restricted by any government or individual; are often said to be granted to people by "natural law." Often discussed by Enlightenment thinker John Locke

Deism

A popular Enlightenment era belief that there is a God, but that God isn't involved in people's lives or in revealing truths to prophets.

Liberalism

A political ideology that emphasizes the civil rights of citizens, representative government, and the protection of private property. This ideology, derived from the Enlightenment, was especially popular among the property-owning middle classes.

Empiricism

the view that knowledge originates in experience and that science should, therefore, rely on observation and experimentation

Nationalism

A strong feeling of pride in and devotion to one's country; it further aims to build and maintain a single national identity—based on shared social characteristics such as culture, language, religion, politics, and belief in a shared singular history—and to promote national unity or solidarity.

Feminism

the belief that women should possess the same political and economic rights as men; became popular during the Enlightenment

Mary Wollstonecraft

English writer and early feminist who denied male supremacy and advocated equal education for women; wrote A Vindication of the Rights of Women, a famous feminist document in 1792

Suffrage

the right to vote in political elections

End of Serfdom

Most important reform of Russian Czar Alexander II; 1861-1865

Declaration of Independence

1776 statement, issued by the Second Continental Congress, explaining why the colonies wanted independence from Britain.

Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen

Adopted August 26, 1789, statement of fundamental political rights adopted by the French National Assembly at the beginning of the French Revolution.

Jamaica Letter

A was a document written in Jamaica by South American revolutionary leader Simon Bolivar where he famously expanded his views on thee independence movement in Venezuela and the way the government under the way they tried to operate.

Reign of Terror

(1793-1794) during the French Revolution when thousands were executed for "disloyalty;" led by Robespierre who tried rebels and had them executed often by guillotine

Simon Bolivar

The most important military leader in the struggle for independence in South America. Born in Venezuela, he led military forces there and in Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia.

Toussaint L'Ouverture

Was an important leader of the Haitian Revolution and the first leader of a free Haiti; in a long struggle again the institution of slavery, he led the blacks to victory over the whites and free coloreds and secured native control over the colony in 1797, calling himself a dictator.

Realpolitik

practical politics, ends justified the means, power more important than principles; utilized by Otto von Bismarck to unify Germany

Otto von Bismarck

Chancellor of Prussia from 1862 until 1871, when he became chancellor of Germany. A conservative nationalist, he led Prussia to victory against Austria (1866) and France (1870) in order to create a sense of national unity; assisted German unification in 1871

Mestizos

A person of mixed Native American and European ancestry

Peninsulares

Spanish-born, came to Latin America; ruled, highest social class in Latin America since they were the least likely to have "tainted bloodlines"

Creoles

Descendents of Spanish-born but born in Latin America; resented inferior social, political, economic status.

Meiji Restoration

In 1868, a Japanese state-sponsored industrialization and Westernization effort that also involved the elimination of the Shogunate and power being handed over to the Japanese Emperor, who had previously existed as mere spiritual/symbolic figure.

Adam Smith

Scottish economist who wrote the Wealth of Nations in 1776, a precursor to modern capitalism.

Wealth of Nations

British philosopher and writer Adam Smith's 1776 book that described his theory on free trade, otherwise known as laissez-faire economics.

Laissez-faire economics

hands off approach to economic development; the government should limit its interference in the economy

Transnational business

A business that operates in several different countries but in one specific country (headquarters), two companies include the United Fruits company and HSBC

Industrial Working Class

lower class created during the 18th century with the onset of the Industrial Revolution; often experienced poor living and working conditions

middle class

A social class made up of skilled workers, professionals, business people, and wealthy farmers; rose to wealth and prominence during the Industrial Revolution

Urbanization

An increase in the percentage and in the number of people living in cities as opposed to the countryside.

Karl Marx

1818-1883. 19th century philosopher, political economist, sociologist, humanist, political theorist, and revolutionary. Often recognized as the father of communism. Analysis of history led to his belief that communism would replace capitalism as it replaced feudalism. Believed in a classless society.

Communism

a political theory derived from Karl Marx, advocating class war and leading to a society in which all property is publicly owned and each person works and is paid according to their abilities and needs.

Socialism

a political and economic theory of social organization which advocates that the means of production, distribution, and exchange should be owned or regulated by the community as a whole.

Tanzimat Reforms

Series of reforms in the Ottoman Empire between 1839 and 1876; established Western-style universities, state postal system, railways, extensive legal reforms; resulted in creation of new constitution in 1876

Young Turks

A coalition starting in the late 1870s of various groups favoring modernist liberal reform of the Ottoman Empire. It was against monarchy of Ottoman Sultan and instead favored a constitution. In 1908 they succeed in establishing a new constitutional era.

Self-Strengthening Movement

A late nineteenth century movement in which the Chinese under the Qing Dynasty attempted to modernize their army and encourage Western investment in factories and railways

HSBC (Hong Kong and Shanghai Banking Corporation)

HSBC was established in 1865 to finance trade between Europe and Asia. Initially founded in the British colony of Hong Kong it benefited from the opening of China to trade, including the opium trade.

Capitalism

an economic and political system in which a country's trade and industry are controlled by private owners for profit, rather than by the state.

labor union

An organization of workers that tries to improve working conditions, wages, and benefits for its members; popularized after worker exploitation common after the Industrial Revolution

Proletariat

Marx's term for the exploited class, the mass of workers who do not own the means of production

Bourgeoisie

the middle class, including merchants, industrialists, and professional people

John Locke

17th century English philosopher who opposed the Divine Right of Kings and who asserted that people have a natural right to life, liberty, and property.

Thomas Hobbes

English materialist and political philosopher who advocated absolute sovereignty as the only kind of government that could resolve problems caused by the selfishness of human beings (1588-1679)

Tabula Rasa

John Locke's concept of the mind as a blank sheet ultimately bombarded by sense impressions that, aided by human reasoning, formulate ideas.

Philosophes

Thinkers of the Enlightenment; Wanted to educate the socially elite, but not the masses; were not allowed to openly criticize church or state, so used satire and double-meaning in their writings to avoid being banned; Salons held by wealthy women also kept philosophes safe; They considered themselves part of an intellectual community, and wrote back and forth to each other to share ideas.

Baron Montesquieu

Enlightenment thinker who supported the idea of separation of powers

Voltaire

(1694-1778) French philosopher. He believed that freedom of speech was the best weapon against bad government. He also spoke out against the corruption of the French government, and the intolerance of the Catholic Church.

Jean-Jacques Rousseau

A French man who believed that Human beings are naturally good & free & can rely on their instincts. Government should exist to protect common good, and be a democracy, "Social Contract" he explained an ideal society where each community member would vote on issues and majority would become one law.

Conservatism

a political philosophy based on tradition and social stability, favoring obedience to political authority and organized religion

Classical Liberalism

A term given to the philosophy of John Locke and other 17th and 18th century advocates of the protection of individual rights and liberties by limiting government power.

Abolitionism

Movement to end slavery

Zionism

A policy for establishing and developing a national homeland for Jews in Palestine.

Anti-Semitism

hostility to or prejudice against Jews.

Theodor Herzl

Prominent journalist who led the cause of Zionism in the late 19th century.

Dreyfus Affair

Incident in France where a Jewish captain was tried for treason because the military was anti-Semitic, and it divided the country - Alfred Dreyfus was convicted on forged documents by people promoting Antisemitism - ultimately pardoned but showed how widespread Antisemitism was even in a country where Jews seemed to be least oppressed

Utopian Socialism

Philosophy introduced by the Frenchman Charles Fourier in the early nineteenth century. Utopian socialists hoped to create humane alternatives to industrial capitalism by building self-sustaining communities whose inhabitants would work cooperatively

Henri de Saint-Simon

Utopian socialist who wanted a society led by intellectuals providing for the welfare of the lowest classes

Charles Fourier

A leading utopian socialist known for his work, Theory of Four Movements, who envisaged small communal societies in which men and women cooperated in agriculture and industry, abolishing the private property (1772-1837)

Robert Owen

(1771-1858) British cotton manufacturer believed that humans would reveal their true natural goodness if they lived in a cooperative environment. Tested his theories at New Lanark, Scotland and New Harmony, Indiana, but failed

Fabian Society

Group of English socialists, including George Bernard Shaw, who advocated electoral victories rather than violent revolution to bring about social change. - an association of British socialists who advocate gradual reforms within the law leading to democratic socialism

French Revolution (1789)

Reacting to the oppressive aristocracy, the French middle and lower classes overthrew the king and asserted power for themselves in a violent and bloody revolution. This uprising was inspired by America's independence from England and the Enlightenment ideas.

American Revolution

This political revolution began with the Declaration of Independence in 1776 where American colonists sought to balance the power between government and the people and protect the rights of citizens in a democracy.

Reign of Terror (1793-1794)

Robespierre used revolutionary terror to solidify the home front, in special courts rebels and enemies of the nation were tried for political crimes over a ten-month period of brutal repression when some 40,000 individuals were executed as enemies of the French Revolution. While many Jeffersonians maintained their faith in the French Republic, Federalists withdrew their already lukewarm support once the Reign of Terror commenced.

Liberte, Egalite, Fraternite

Motto for the Declaration of Men meaning "Liberty, equality, and fraternity"

Haitian Revolution (1791-1804)

War incited by a slave uprising in French-controlled Saint Domingue, resulting in the creation of the first independent black republic in the Americas.

Latin American Revolutions

Series of risings in the Spanish colonies of Latin America (1810-1826) that established the independence of new states from Spanish rule but that for the most part retained the privileges of the elites despite efforts at more radical social rebellion by the lower classes.

Lola Rodriguez de Tio

Puerto Rican who wrote patriotic poems that supported independence and criticed Spanish rule - her home became a meeting place for political thinkers and revolutionaries

Propaganda Movement

a Filipino movement involving magazines, pamplets, and other publications advocating for greater autonomy in the Philippines - one famous leader Jose Rizal, was arrested and executed

Italian Unification

During 1848, Italy was separated into many states. Cavour worked to unify the North then helped Giuseppe Garibaldi unify the South staring with Sicily. Garibaldi eventually stepped aside and handed over all of Southern Italy to Victor Emmanuel II (King of Sardinia) rule all of the now unified Italy

Guiseppe Mazzini

(1805-1872), Nationalistic leader in Italy, who started a group called Young Italy in 1831. Young Italy was a nationalistic movement that wanted to end foreign control of Italy.

Risorgimento

"Renewal, to be born" movement in Italy to recreate a strong, unified Italian nation-state

Guiseppe Garibaldi

Military leader whose Red Shirt army liberated most of southern Italy, before conquering the northern section. He was instrumental in the unification of Italy.

German Unification

In the 19th-century, various independent German-speaking states, led by the chancellor of Prussia Otto von Bismarck, unified to create a Germanic state. The state expanded with von Bismarck's military exploits against Austria, France and Denmark. Unification was complete by 1871 with the Prussian king, Wilhelm, named the first leader of Germany.

Ottomanism

An ideology developed by the Ottoman govt in order to strengthen their subjects' loyalty and solidarity. Focused on the idea the all subjects are equal (despite religious/ethnic/linguistic differences) and deserved equal rights (reinforced by Imperial decree of 1856).

Maroon

A slave who ran away from his or her master. Often a member of a community of runaway slaves in the West Indies and South America.

Mulatto

The term used in Spanish and Portuguese colonies to describe someone of mixed African and European descent.

Bastille

fortress in Paris used as a prison; French Revolution began when Parisians stormed it in 1789

Italian Peninsula

a boot-shaped peninsula in southern Europe extending into the Mediterranean Sea

Balkin Peninsula

Area of Eastern Europe made up of Croatia, Slovenia, Serbia and Romania and areas down to Greece; Also known as the "powder keg"

Caravel

A small, highly maneuverable three-masted ship used by the Portuguese and Spanish in the exploration of the Atlantic; used for long voyages at great speed from 15th to 17th centuries; used for exploration, not trade

Carrack

a large trading merchant ship operating in European waters (especially by the Portuguese) in the 14th to the 17th century.

Fluyt

Dutch sailing vessel that allowed them to control the Baltic trade; designed to facilitate transoceanic delivery with max space and crew efficiency; used from 16th to 17th centuries

Henry the Navigator

(1394-1460) Portuguese prince who promoted the study of navigation and directed voyages of exploration down the western coast of Africa; sponsored seafaring expeditions to search for an all-water route to the east; imported enslaved Africans via the sea

Vasco da Gama

Portuguese explorer. In 1497-1498 he led the first naval expedition from Europe to sail to India, opening an important commercial sea route for Europeans

Ferdinand Magellan

Portuguese navigator who led the Spanish expedition of 1519-1522 that was the first to sail around the world.

trading post empire

Form of imperial dominance based on control of trade rather than on control of subject peoples; practiced by Europeans in the Indian Ocean as they took over trade from Arab and Muslim merchants

Christopher Columbus

Italian navigator who discovered the New World in the service of Spain while looking for a route to China (1451-1506)

Columbian Exchange

The exchange of plants, animals, diseases, and technologies between the Americas and the rest of the world following Columbus' voyages.

Mercantilism

An economic policy under which nations sought to increase their wealth and power by obtaining large amounts of gold and silver and by selling more goods than they bought; colonies were crucial in the accumulation of wealth

The Great Dying

Term used to describe the devastating demographic impact of European-borne epidemic diseases on the Americas.

Chattel Slavery

Absolute legal ownership of another person, including the right to buy or sell that person; the form of slavery utilized in the Americas during the trans-Atlantic slave trade

Mita System

economic system in Inca society where people paid taxes with their labor and what they produced; later exploited by the Spanish as they forced Incas to mine silver

Indentured Servitude

A worker bound by a voluntary agreement to work for a specified period of years often in return for free passage to an overseas destination. Before 1800 most were Europeans; after 1800 most indentured laborers were Asians.

Encomienda

A grant of land made by Spain to a settler in the Americas, including the right to use Native Americans as laborers on it

Hacienda

Spanish estates in the Americas that were often plantations. They often represent the gradual removal of land from peasant ownership and a type of feudalistic order where the owners of would have agreements of loyalty but would retain control over the actual land. This continued into the 20th century.

joint-stock company

A company made up of a group of shareholders. Each shareholder contributes some money to the company and receives some share of the company's profits and debts; used by European rulers to finance exploration and were used by rulers to compete against one another in global trade

Royal chartered monopoly companies

Groups of private investors who paid an annual fee to France and England in exchange for a monopoly over trade to Indian Ocean colonies

Casta Paintings

Paintings that show the racial mixing of a family. Shows hierarchy of society.

Mestizo

The term used by Spanish authorities to describe someone of mixed native American and European descent.

Mulatto

The term used in Spanish and Portuguese colonies to describe someone of mixed African and European descent.