AP Psychology Whole Year Content

How does our outlook influence our health and coping?

pessimists expect things to go badly, optimists expect to have more control, cope better with stressful events, and to enjoy better health

How does social support promote happiness and health?

social support (feeling liked and encouraged by intimate friends and family) promotes both happiness and health

What is mindfulness meditation?

a reflective practice in which people attend to current experiences in a nonjudgmental and accepting manner

What is the faith factor, and what are some possible explanations for the link between faith and health?

religiously active people tend to live longer than those who are not religiously active

What is the feel-good, do-good phenomenon?

people’s tendency to be helpful when in a good mood

What is positive psychology?

the scientific study of human flourishing, with the goals of discovering and promoting strengths and virtues that help individuals and communities to thrive

What is subjective well-being?

self-perceived happiness or satisfaction with life; used along with measures of objective well-being (for example, physical and economic factors) to evaluate people’s quality of life

Over the long run, what occurs with out emotional ups and downs?

tend to balance out, even over the course of the day

What is the surprising reality with our emotional rollercoaster?

we overestimate the duration of our emotions and underestimate our resiliency and capacity to adapt

What is aerobic exercise and how does it help to reduce stress?

activities that elevate heart rate and breathing, helps reduce stress by releasing endorphins, improving mood, and providing a mental break from daily worries; can relieve mild depression and anxiety as it promotes health and energy

In what ways might relaxation and meditation influence stress and health?

relaxing muscles, lowering blood pressure, improving immune functioning, and lessening anxiety and depression

What is gratitude?

an appreciative emotion people often experience when they benefit from other’s actions or recognize their own good fortune

What is the adaptation-level phenomenon?

our tendency to form judgements (of sounds, lights, income) relative to a neutral level defined by our prior experience

What is the relative deprivation?

the perception that one is worse off relative to those with whom one compares oneself

What is the broaden-and-build theory?

proposes that positive emotions broaden our awareness, which over time helps us build novel and meaningful skills and resilience that improves well-being

What are character strengths and virtues?

a classification system to identify positive traits; organized into the categories below:

wisdom- creativity, curiosity, judgement, love of learning, and perspective

courage- bravery, honesty, perseverance, and zest

humanity- kindness, love, and social intelligence

justice- fairness, leadership, and teamwork

temperance- forgiveness, humility, prudence, and self-regulation

transcendence- appreciation of beauty and excellence, gratitude, hope, humor, and spirituality

What are psychological disorders?

a syndrome marked by a clinically significant disturbance in an individual’s cognition, emotion regulation, or behavior

What does it mean if thoughts, emotions, or behaviors are dysfunctional?

maladaptive; interfere with normal day-to-day life

What often accompanies dysfunction?

distress

What is a medical model?

the concept that diseases, in this case psychological disorders, have physical causes that can be diagnosed, treated, and, in most cases, cured, often through treatment in a hospital

What is the diathesis-stress model?

the concept that genetic predispositions (diathesis) combine with the environmental stressors (stress) to influence psychological disorder

What is epigenetics?

“above” or “in addition to” genetics; the study of the molecular mechanisms by which environments can influence genetic expression

In psychiatry and psychology, what is the aim of a diagnostic classification?

to predict a disorder’s future course, suggest appropriate treatment, and prompt research into its causes

What is the DSM-5?

the American Psychiatric Association’s Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition; a widely used system for classifying psychological disorders

How have some diagnostic labels changed?

“autism” and “Asperger’s syndrome” → autism spectrum disorder

“mental retardation” → intellectual disability

Explain how some of the new or altered diagnoses are controversial.

may lead to overmedication

What are some criticisms of DSM-5?

casting too wide a net and bringing almost any kind of behavior within the compass of psychiatry

What is attention-deficit/ hyperactivity disorder?

a psychological disorder marked by extreme inattention and/or hyperactivity and impulsivity

Do disorders actually increase risk of violence?

no; most violent criminals aren’t mentally ill, and most mentally ill people are not violent; few people with disorders who commit violent acts tend to have delusions who tell them to act, suffered financial crisis or lost relationship or who abuse substances

How many people have, or have had, a psychological disorder?

just under 1/5 adult Americans currently have a “mental, behavioral, or emotional” disorder or have had one within the past year

What increases vulnerability to mental disorders?

poverty crosses ethnic and gender lines;

risk factors: academic failure, birth complications, child abuse, medical illness, trauma, parental mental illness, chronic insomnia, pain, low status, personal loss, stress, poor work skills

What are anxiety disorders?

psychological disorders characterized by distressing, persistent anxiety or maladaptive behaviors that reduce anxiety

What is social anxiety disorder?

intense fear and avoidance of social situations (formerly called social phobia)

What is generalized anxiety disorder?

an anxiety disorder in which a person is continually tense, apprehensive, and in a state of autonomic nervous system arousal

What is panic disorder?

an anxiety disorder marked by unpredictable, minutes-long episodes of intense dread in which a person may experience terror and accompanying chest pain, chocking, or other frightening sensations; often followed by worry over a possible next attack

What are phobias?

an anxiety disorder marked by a persistent, irrational fear and avoidance of a specific object, activity, or situation

What is agoraphobia?

the fear or avoidance of situations, such as crowds or wide open places, where one has felt loss of control and panic

What is obsessive-compulsive disorder?

a disorder characterized by unwanted repetitive thoughts (obsessions), actions (compulsions), or both

What are obsessive thoughts?

are unwanted and so repetitive it may seem they will never go away

What are compulsive behaviors?

often responses to obsessive thoughts

When does OCD cross the line between normality and disorder?

when the “little rehearsals” and “fussy behaviors” persistently interfere with everyday living and cause distress

What is posttraumatic stress disorder?

a disorder characterized by haunting memories, nightmares, hyper vigilance, social withdrawal, jumpy anxiety, numbness of feeling, and/or insomnia that lingers for four weeks or more after a traumatic experience

What is trauma and stressor-related disorders?

a group of disorders in which exposure to a traumatic or stressful event is followed by psychological stress

What is survivor resiliency?

recovering from severe stress

What is posttraumatic growth?

what doesn’t kill you makes you stronger

Why do some psychologists believe that PTSD has been over diagnosed?

PTSD gets stretched to include normal stress-related bad memories and dreams; debriefing people may worsen stress reactions; reliving trauma through media coverage sustains the stress response

How does classical conditioning influence our fear responses?

our fear responses can become linked with formerly neutral objects and events

How does stimulus generalization contribute to fears and anxieties?

occurs when a person experiences a fearful event and later develops a fear of similar events

How does reinforcement contribute to fears and anxieties?

helps maintain learned fears and anxieties; anything that enables us to avoid a feared situation can reinforce maladaptive behaviors

How do our past experiences influence fear and anxiety?

shape our expectations and influence our interpretations and reactions; interpret whether creaky sound is wind or knife-wielding attacker

How do genes and our brains influence anxiety?

stronger reactions to stress if its close biological relatives are anxiously reactive

traumatic fear-learning experiences can leave tracks in the brain, creating fear circuits within the amygdala

To feel bad in reaction to profoundly sad events is to be ___

in touch with reality

What is major depressive disorder?

a disorder in which a person experiences, in the absence of drugs or another medical condition, 2+ weeks with 5+ symptoms, at least one of which must be either (1) depressed mood or (2) loss of interest or pleasure

What is persistent depressive disorder?

dysthymia; have experienced a mildly depressed mood more often than not for 2+ years

What is the number one reason people seek mental health services?

depression

What is bipolar disorder?

a disorder in which a person alternates between the hopelessness and lethargy of depression and the overexcited state of mania

What is mania?

a hyperactive, wildly optimistic state in which dangerously poor judgement is common

What occurs during the manic phase?

people with bipolar disorder typically have little need for sleep show fewer sexual inhibitions, positive emotions persist abnormally, speech is loud and hard to interrupt, find advice irritating

What is bipolar I?

most severe form, in which people experience a euphoric, talkative, highly energetic, and overly ambitious state that lasts a week or longer

What is bipolar II?

a less severe form in which people move between depression and a milder hypomania

Why is bipolar disorder considered more dysfunctional than depression?

it claims twice as many lost work days yearly; it is a potent predictor of suicide; afflicts as many men as women

What are the six main facts of depression?

behavioral and cognitive changes accompany depression

depression is widespread

women’s risk of major depressive disorder is nearly double mens’

most major depressive episodes self-terminate

stressful events related to work, marriage, and close relationships often precede depression

compared to generations past, depression strikes earlier (now often in the late teens) and affects more people, with the highest rates among young adults in developed countries

What is the linkage analysis of genetic influences on depression?

geneticists find families in which the disorder appears across several genes and examine DNA differences that could point to the chromosome neighborhood or the culprit gene variation

How does norepinephrine influence depression and bipolar disorder?

it increases arousal and boosts mood: scarce during depression and overabundant during mania

How does serotonin influence depression and bipolar disorder?

scarce or inactive during depression

What is the social-cognitive perspective?

explains how people’s assumptions and expectations influence what they perceive

What is rumination?

compulsive fretting; overthinking our problems and their cause

What is depression’s “vicious cycle”?

stressful experiences→ negative explanatory style→ depressed mood→ cognitive and behavioral changes

What have researchers found when comparing suicide rates of different groups?

national differences: ½ UK, Italy, spain; 1 US, Canada, Australia; 2 Austria and Finland

racial differences: whites and Native Americans twice as often as black, hispanic, and asian

gender differences: women more likely to attempt suicide but men actually end lives; and lethally

age differences: highest at late adulthood 45-64 and second highest at 85+

other group differences: higher for rich, nonreligious, single, widowed, divorced

day of week and seasonal differences: midweek (Wednesday) and April/May

When do suicidal urges typically arise?

when people feel disconnected from others and a burden to them, or when they feel defeated and trapped by an inescapable situation

What is non-suicidal self-injury, and why do some engage in these behaviors?

may cut or burn skin, hit themselves, insert objects under the skin or nails, non fatal

to find relief from intense thoughts through distraction of pain, attract attention and help, relive guilt by punishment, change others’ negative behavior, fit in

What is schizophrenia?

a disorder characterized by delusions, hallucinations, disorganized speech, and/or diminished, inappropriate emotional expression

What is a psychotic disorder?

a group of disorders marked by irrational ideas, distorted perceptions, and a loss of contact with reality

What are positive behaviors, and what are some examples?

inappropriate behaviors are present

hallucinations, talk in disorganized ways, inappropriate laughter, tears, or rage

What are negative behaviors, and what are some examples?

appropriate behaviors are absent

absence of emotion in their voices, expressionless faces, or unmoving— mute and rigid bodies

What are hallucinations?

false sensory experiences, such as seeing something in the absence of an external visual stimulus; false perception

What are delusions?

a false belief, often by persecution or grandeur, that may accompany psychotic disorders; false belief

With organized speech, what is meant by the word salad?

jumbled ideas may make no sense even within sentences

What is catatonia?

motor behaviors ranging from a physical stupor— motionless for hours— to senseless, compulsive actions, such as continually rocking or rubbing an arm, to sever and dangerous agitation

How many will be diagnosed with schizophrenia?

1/100

Around what age does schizophrenia “typically strike”?

young people maturing into adulthood

What is chronic schizophrenia?

a form of schizophrenia in which symptoms usually appear by late adolescence or early adulthood; as people age, psychotic episodes last longer and recovery periods shorten

What is acute schizophrenia?

a form of schizophrenia that can begin at any age; frequently occurs in response to a traumatic event

How can schizophrenia be caused by a dopamine overactivity?

intensify brain signals in schizophrenia, creating positive symptoms such as hallucinations and paranoia

How can schizophrenia be caused by abnormal brain activity and anatomy?

abnormally low brain activity in frontal lobes (reason, planing, solving problems); decline in brain waves that reflect synthetic neural firing in the frontal lobes

If an identical twin develops schizophrenia, what are the odds the other twin will as well?

1/2

What are the odds that the second fraternal twin will develop schizophrenia?

1/10

What are some early warning signs of possible schizophrenia?

mom whose schizophrenia was severe and long-lasting, birth complications, separation from parents, short attention span, disruptive behavior, emotional unpredictability, poor peer relations, childhood sexual, physical, or emotional abuse

What are dissociative behaviors?

controversial, rare disorders in which conscious awareness becomes separated (dissociated) from previous memories, thoughts, and feelings

What is a dissociative identity disorder (DID)?

a rare dissociative disorder in which a person exhibits 2+ distinct and alternating personalities (multiple personality disorder)

What is a personality disorder?

inflexible and enduring behavior patterns that impair social functioning

What is avoidant personality disorder?

a disorder characterized by fearful sensitivity to rejection that predisposes the individual to withdraw

What is schizotypal personality disorder?

a disorder defined by eccentric or odd behaviors, including emotionless disengagement

What is borderline personality disorder?

a disorder marked by dramatic and impulsive behaviors aimed at gaining attention

What is narcissistic personality disorder?

a disorder characterized by self-focused and self-inflating behaviors

What is antisocial personality disorder?

a disorder defined by callous and often dangerous behaviors

What is anorexia nervosa?

an eating disorder in which a person (usually an adolescent female) maintains a starvation diet despite being significantly underweight; sometimes accompanied by excessive exercise

What is bulimia nervosa?

an eating disorder in which a person’s binge eating (usually of high-calorie foods) is followed by inappropriate weight-loss promoting behavior, such as vomiting, laxative use, fasting, or excessive exercise

What is psychotherapy?

treatment involving psychological techniques; consists of interactions between a trained therapist and someone seeking to overcome psychological difficulties or achieve personal growth

What is biomedical therapy?

prescribed medications or procedures that act directly on the person’s physiology