MGT Exam 2

Scientific Management

focuses on analyzing and improving the efficiency of work processes

Human relations

focuses on how the social environment of work influences attitudes and behavior

Hawthorne effect

is an improvement in work productivity resulting from people receiving attention from observers

Systems theory

highlights the complex interdependences between individuals, features of organizations, and the broader organizational context

Institutionalization

has occurred when organizational practices or rules are accepted and perpetuated without regard to instrumental rationality

Social construction of reality

is the idea that what we perceive to be real is influenced by the social environment

Stakeholder

is any group within or outside the organization that is direclty affected by the organization and has a stake in its performance

Organization-specific responsibility (OSR)

is the responsibility of organizations to focus on the organization's owners and their financial stakeholders

Corporate social responsibility (CSR)

is the responsibility of organizations to act in ways that protect and improve the welfare of multiple stakeholders

Natural Environment

is composed pf all living and nonliving things that have not been created by human technology or human activity

Externalities

are positive or negative effects on others or society not accounted for in the prices of a firm's goods or services

Greenwashing

refers to deliberately using misleading information in order to present a false image of ecological responsibility

Sustainable development

is development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs

Diversity

is a state of having or being composed of differing attributes

Social categorization theory

proposes that we use characteristics to categorize others into groups, and this shapes our attitudes and behavior toward others

Stereotypes

are general perceptions about a group of people with similar characteristics

Unconscious biases

are sterotypes that are triggered automatically without awareness

Abilities

are innate capabilities to perform a specific task

Personality

is the unique and relatively stable pattern of behavior, thoughts, and emotions shown by individuals

Extraversion

is a personality trait associated with being sociable, talkative, assertive, and adventurous

Agreeableness

is a personality trait associated with being good- natured, cooperative, trustful, and not jealous

Conscientiousness

is a personality trait associated with being achievement-oriented, responsible, preserving, and dependable

Openness to experience

is a personality trait associated with being intellectual, original, imaginative, and cultured

Emotional stability

is a personality trait associated with being calm, placid, poised, and not neurotic

Organizational citizenship behavior (OCB)

is work behavior that goes above and beyond normal role or job expectations to help others or benefit the organization

Negative affect

describes a person who is generally angry, anxious, and pessimistic

Positive affect

describes a person who is generally happy, enthused, and optimistic

Myer-Briggs type indicator (MBTI)

is a personality inventory based on Carl Jung’s work psychological types

Core self-evaluation

is a broad trait that integrates an individual’s sense of self-esteem, generalized self-efficacy, level of emotional stability, and locus of control

Locus of control

is a person’s consistent beliefs about the sources of success and failure

Self-esteem

is an individual’s self-evaluation of worth

Self-efficacy

is a person’s belief that he or she will be able to complete a task successfully

Generalized self-efficacy

is a person’s belief or confidence in his or her capability to cope with a perform in a variety of situations

Beliefs

are ideas or opinions who hold to be true

Theory X

states that managers assume people are inherently lazy, dislike work, will avoid working hard unless forced to do so, and prefer to be directed rather than accepting responsibility

Theory Y

states that managers assume people are inherently motivated to work and will feel unfulfilled if they do not have the opportunity to work and make a contribution to society

Values

are a set of personal tenets that guide a person’s actions in evaluating and adapting to his or her world

Terminal values

are related to desirable ends (what a person values achieving in life)

Instrumental values

are desirable means to achieve end states

Ethics

are a set of principles or standards that differentiate right from wrong

Moral development

is the state or level of a person’s moral reasoning

Moral point of view

is a framework of values we use to develop our internally consistent and logically justified principles and standards of right and wrong

Consequentialist theory

considers the consequences of an action in determining what is ethical

Utilitarianism

is a moral philosophy that holds that ethical managers strive to produce “the greatest good for the greatest number”

Egoism

is a moral philosophy based on what “benefits me the most”

Virtues

are good ways of acting that are noble or have value regardless of the end result or consequences

Sustaincentrism

is a perspective promoting balance between the human and ecological concerns in organizational endeavors

Ethical climate

describes the informal shared perceptions of what are appropriate practices and procedures

Ethical culture

consists of the formal and informal systems aimed at influencing the ethical behavior of organizational members

Code of ethics

is a formal written statement of an organizations primary values and the ethical rules it expects its members to follow

Bottom-line mentality

is an unbalanced pursuit of a single goal or outcome to the neglect of competing goals or priorities

Attitudes

are summary evaluations of a particular object or person

ABC framework

of attitudes includes affect, behavioral intentions, and cognitions

Job satisfaction

is a person’s general attitude toward his or her job or job experiences

Job involvement

is the extent to which a person thinks about, is immersed in, and is concerned about his or her job

Commitments

are attachments or bonds to people, actions, or organizations

Organizational commitment

is an attachment or bond to a particular organization

Perceptions

are the subjective interpretations we give to information and receive messages we reiceve from sensory inputs

Attributions

are peoples explanations of the causes of behaviors or performance

Impression management

is an actor’s active attempt to limit or influence the information the perceiver receives

Cognitive dissonance

is the uncomfortable mental state we experience if a current perception, belief, or behavior conflicts with a past perception, deeply held belief, or previous behavior

Emotions

are affective states that arise in response to information or messages a person receives from specific sensory inputs

Emotional labor

is a term given to the display and management of appropriate emotion as part of fulfilling job responsibilities

Emotional Intelligence

is the innate or developed capability to recognize, manage, and exercise emotions in relationships

Motivation

is a psychological force that helps to explain what arouses, directs, and maintains human behavior

Maslow’s hierarchy of needs

is the theory that people are motivated to satisfy five needs levels: physiological, safety, esteem, love and belonging and self-actualization

ERG theory

describes three universal categories of needs: existence, relatedness, and growth

Frustration-regression principle

suggests that people who are unable to satisfy higher-order needs will compensate by focusing on over satisfying lower-order needs

Hygiene factors

refer to the presence or absence of sources of job dissatisfaction

Motivator

refer to the presence or absence of sources of job satisfaction

Self-determination theory

describes how motivation is linked to the psychological needs of competence, relatedness, and autonomy

McClelland’s acquired needs theory

states that certain types of needs or desires are acquired during an individual’s lifetime

Goal-setting theory

states that goals direct and motivate behavior

Stretch goal

is one so difficult that people do not immediately know how to reach it

Goal displacement

occurs when important overarching goals are displaced by other specific goals

Expectancy theory

states that motivation depends on an individual’s learned expectations about his or her ability to perform certain tasks and receive desired rewards

Expectancy

refers to the probability perceived by an individual that exerting a given amount of effort will lead to a certain level of performance

Self-fulfilling prophecy effect

is the idea that people often live up (or down) to the expectations of others

Group efficacy

is the collective belief about the group’s performance capability

Instrumentality

refers to the perceived probability that successfully performing at a certain level will result in attaining a desired outcome

Valence

is the value an individual attached to an outcome

Extrinsic motivation

is a source of motivation that comes from factors outside the task itself

Intrinsic motivation

is a source of motivation that comes from doing the activity or work itself

Equity theory

is based on the logic of social comparisons, and it assumes that people are motivated to seek and preserve social equity in the rewards they expect for performance

Polycentrism

assumes organizational members in a host country know the best way to manage an organization in their country

Ethncentrism

the belief that your own country offers the best way to manage in a foreign country

Egalicentrism

the assumption that people from different cultures work together in a manner characterized by two-way, give-and-take communication that fosters mutual understanding and community

Individualism - Hofstede’s Dimensions of Culture

• individual rights

• value self-interest

• achieve personal gain

• workplace: focus on performance

• hiring: based on individual skills, trust experience

Collectivism - Hofstede’s Dimensions of Culture

• focus on group interests

• value the group

• achieve collectively

• workplace: focus on seniority

• hiring: based on group dynamics, trust inspiration

Materialism (masculine) - Hofstede’s Dimensions of Culture

• focus on assertiveness

• value achievement

• motivated by money/material goods

• workplace: focus on higher salaries

• value: bonuses and development, conflict: resolved by fighting

Short-term orientation - Hofstede’s Dimensions of Culture

• focus on the present

• value immediate rewards

• make quick fixes that won’t be noticed

• workplace: lack loyalty, fast food/instant credit

Long-term orientation - Hofstede’s Dimensions of Culture

• focus on the future

• value patience

• persevere in the face of setbacks

• workplace loyalty

• save for future

High Power Distance - Hofstede’s Dimensions of Culture

• power distributed unevenly

• value hierarchy and class systems

• motivated by money/material good

• workplace: leaders make decisions

• value: privileges and status symbols

Challenge authority - Hofstede’s Dimensions of Culture

• power evenly distributed

• value decentralization and participation

• motivated by meaningful work

• workplace: workers expect to be consulted

• value: input in decision-making

Uncertainty avoidance - Hofstede’s Dimensions of Culture

• fear the unknown

• what is different is dangerous

• suppresses different/new ideas

• many precise laws and rules

• workplace: managers have all the answers

Comfortable with uncertainty - Hofstede’s Dimensions of Culture

• comfortable with ambiguous situations

• what is different is curious

• encourage innovation

• few or general laws, and rules

• workplace: managers say “i don’t know”

Extraversion - MBTI

• draw energy from interactions

• tend to speak first, reflect later

• develop ideas through discussion

• prefer to work with others

• learn by talking and doing

• have breadth in their interests

Introversion - MBTI

• are drained by interactions

• tend to reflect before speaking

• develop ideas by reflection

• prefer to work alone

• learn by reading and reflecting

• have depth in their interests

Sensing - MBTI

• focus on the facts and details

• value practical applications

• prefer stability and proven methods

• enjoy applying what they learn

• oriented toward the present

• trust experience

Intuitive - MBTI

• focus on the big picture

• value imagination

• prefer change and innovation

• enjoy learning more than applying

• oriented toward the future

• trust inspiration