Chapter 12 Problem Solving

Problem solving – definition

• problem solving is a mental process directed at achieving a goal when you do not know the solution right away.

• it includes recognizing a problem, gathering information, analyzing and solving it, assessing the solutions effectivity

• Goal: to overcome barriers and find a solution that best solves the problem

• problems are all mental processes directed at achieving a goal when you do not have an immediate solution

What are mental processes that contribute to problem solving?

Recognizing
a problem.

Account for all relevant information…
From the environment
(Bottom-Up)

From knowledge/experience
(Top-Down)

Memory and problem solving

As you analyzing & solve the problem, you may search your memory for
relationship between current and past problems...

Facts
Strategies
Beliefs
Concepts

Influence problem-oriented processing

Generating solutions

Next, you must think about the problem and generate possible solutions.

Take in relevant
information into account

Manipulate information
to generate solutions.

Assess outcomes of solution
attempts to assess effectiveness.

Recursive Dynamics:
Steps are repeated as many times as necessary.

The problem-solving cycle

models of problem solving

well defined, vs ill-defined problems

• Well-defined problems have correct answers, clearly defined states, and clearly defined initial states, goal states, and operators. They are effectively solved by humans and computers and are easily solved using algorithms.

• Ill-defined problems do not have one correct answer, can be solved in many ways, have unclear goal states, and are difficult for computers to solve. Examples include choosing a college major, relationship issues, and moral qualms.

• Anderson (1985) stated that all cognitive activities are fundamentally problem solving in nature because human cognition is always purposeful, directed toward achieving goals and removing obstacles to those goals.

Problem-solving approaches

• There are two main theories describing how people approach solving problems…

• The Behaviorist Approach

  • → Problems are solved using knowledge, trial, and error.

• The Gestalt Approach

  • → Problems are solved by considering them more deeply.

The Behaviorist Approach

• Behaviorism

  • Concerned with observable behaviors that results from stimulus-response pairs, reinforcement, and punishment; based on principles of cause and effect

• Thorndike (1898, 1911)

• Proposed problem solving was a reproductive process:

  • Involves using past knowledge from experience to generate conscious/deliberate solutions to problems.

  • Rely on trial and error…as we work thought problem solving, information is gained, and used in subsequent problem scenarios.

The Law of Effect

• Responses more closely followed by satisfaction are closely tied to the situation.

• Any response that produces a satisfying effect/positive outcome gradually becomes stronger.

• Responses more closely followed by discomfort become weakly connected.

• Any response that does not produce a satisfying effect/positive outcome becomes weaker.

The Gestalt Approach

• The key mechanism in this perspective of problem solving is cognitive restructuring of information.

• Flexible thinking is a requirement for representing all the possible ways to solve a problem.

• Gestaltists assert that ‘a-ha’ moments are the emergent outcomes of novel information restructuring.

• New insights are often surprising because reframing occurs below levels of consciousness.

• “The whole is greater than the sum of its parts.”

• Gestalt theorists are interested in more than just the steps involved in problem-solving.

• They also want to understand the parts and emergent outcomes.

• This perspective provides a sound theoretical framework for describing both expected and unexpected problem solutions.

Heuristics

• Rules of thumb or problem-solving shortcuts

• Based on previous experience

• Guide judgments and evaluations

When heuristics are used more often

• Information overload

• Time-sensitive tasks

• Unimportant situations

• Limited information

• Competing heuristics

Working backwards and means end analysis

barriers to solving problems

Ignoring irrelevant information

• one must decide what is relevant to the task at hand

• ignoring other information is an acquired not innate skill

• this is more difficult when dealing with ill versed well defined problems

Functional fixedness

• perceiving an item only in terms of its most common use

• inhibits other potential interpretations of problem scenarios

• people tend to focus on a characteristic of a problem or a fixation which prevents them from finding a solution

Maier (1931)- hammer pull task

Insight problems and Non-Insight Problems

Insight Problems

• Problem in which the solution occurs suddenly in your consiousness

Non- Insight problems

• Problems in which you must consciously work through each step of a problem to arrive at a solution

The Nature of Insight

Creativity definition

• being able to produce novel ideas that are appropriate and relevant to the situation

  • creative people are more likely to solve a given problem

  • they can generate many possible solutions that go beyond functional fixedness

  • but how can you operationalize, measure and predict creativity?

How do we measure creativity?

Idealational Fluency

• The number of ideas a person can generate about a topic or item (how many different ways can you use a pencil? arrange a room? describe a stormy night?

Zirghlio 2012

• what is the relationship btw problem solving and creativity?

• identified a positive relationship btw problem solving and creative capabilities

candle problem and the 9 dot problem

Knowledge and Experience

The water jug problem

Experts Vs Novices

benefits for experts vs novices

Information processing approach

Tower of Hanoi

Problem Solving with AI