Zoroastrianism

How did the Parsis live in the 1800s?

They saw great economic growth which was largely due to Bombay

Most parsis began to live in and move to cities

Despite the movement, the Parsis did still communicate with the centers in Gujarat

How did Parsis live in the 1900s?

Experienced Hostility from the Hindus because of the Parsis close ties to the British

Golden era of the Parsi community ended due to progresses made by other groups

large majority of Parsis lived in cities

What are the causes for the declining Parsi population?

Low birth rate

High number of intermarriages

Many are not engaged in religion

What can generally be said about Parsis in our day?

Have a very active communal life

Generally highly educated

Constant causes of friction are their different views on intermarriage and conversion

How were Parsis pioneers in terms of education in the 1800s?

Many Parsis attended Western-run schools

Both sexes attended schooling

The Parsis were encouraged to create their own schools, to avoid sending their children to schools ran by missionaries

Parsis built more and more schools in the 1840s and 50s and children attended them more regularly than other communities

How were the Parsis pioneers in politics in the 1800s?

The British were looking for a community native to the land that could mediate their influence on the country, the Parsis fit into this role perfectly

Dadabhai Naoroji, was from a prominent priestly family and was the first indian to be elected as a member of the British parliament, there were 2 more Parsis elected to this position and several Parsis apart of the Indian national congress

How did the Parsis view the British?

They saw them as superior to other cultures and the values were consistent with Zoroastrian values and British society is what Parsi communities should strive to become

They would emulate and mimic British lifestyle on many different aspects, for instance Parsi women would imitate British manners

What did Reverend John Wilson of the Church of Scotland do?

He launched a direct attack on Zoroastrianism through presenting several accusations against zoroastrianism citing the Avesta and the Pahlavi texts

Main point he mentioned that it was a polytheistic religion

Many could not provide a response on this attack by John Wilson and this sparked some Parsis to get an in-depth grasp of their own religion

What is the reform movement in Parsi Identity?

Many western educated Parsis wanted to modernize the religion

This movement encountered opposition from the more conservative people

How did the reformists and the conservatives go about educating the priests?

K. R. Cama spend a year in Europe visiting scholars of Iranian studies and when he returned to Bombay he taught Avestan and Pahlavi to a group of priests

What was Haug’s interpretation of Zoroastrianism?

He identified the Gathas only as texts of Zoroaster and argued that Zoroaster was a strict monotheist and preached a religion with ethical dualism

Haug claimed that Zoroaster did not preach a ritualistic system

How did Haug’s interpretation help the Parsis?

The perspective had a positive impact on the intellectual and psychological planes, as it gave the parsis an answer to the accusations that had been made by WIlson

How did Haug’s interpretation negatively affect the Parsis?

It decreased the sacredness of all of the other holy texts that are not the Gathas, the texts were all seen to be equally sacred

How did M. N. Dhalla combine innovation and tradition?

Saw Zoroastrianism as a monotheistic faith that had been corrupted by polytheism and deeply distrusted rituals

He followed the traditional beliefs, such as other divine beings existing other than Ahura Mazda

What are the changes and constants of the Parsi community in a contemporary setting?

Several traditional religious practices have been abandoned or simplified, many have preserved

This in spite of the Indian and Western Influences

What are the steps of disposing of the body in the house?

Washing the dead’s body with bull’s urine and water, and dressing it

Putting the body on the floor, drawing a circle around it, which was thought to protect the environment from its pollution

Bringing fire into the room, also to protect from pollution

How was the body prepared for the last journey?

The first of Zoroaster’s Gathas was recited

The body would be carried to the Dakhma

What happens in the Dakhma?

Male friends and relatives would follow the corpse

the body would be put out on the floor and undressed to be eaten

The bones would be placed within a well inside the Dakhma

What are the ceremonies that take place on the first 4 days after someone passes?

Specific ceremonies are done for the first 3 days and on the 4th morning (the soul stays next to the body for 3 days and on the 4th morning after death it goes to the afterlife)

How many days after the passing are ceremonies held for the deceased?

On the 10th and 30th day from death and on the anniversary of the death

What were two most consequential initiatives that took place during the Sassanian times?

• invention of the Avestan alphabet

• The fixation of the collection of the sacred texts

Why was it a big deal that the alphabet was created and the texts were collected?

• the avesta traditionally orally transmitted only

• The alphabet had 50 characters which allowed for the texts to be written accurately

What did the collected texts contain?

The avestan texts and their pahlavi versions

Why was the alphabet created and why was the collection of texts created?

likely due to influence of other religions that had a written canon, such as judaism

What were the 2 titles used for priests in Sassanian Iran?

Herbed and Mowbed (Mowbeds were higher priests than the herbeds)

Who was Kerdir?

• active in 3rd century CE

• played an important role in promoting Zoroastrianism as the state religion

• the author of a set of 4 inscriptions which dates near the end of the 3rd century

  • these are sources for Kerdirs actions

What did Kerdir talk about in his inscriptions?

• his own achievements during the rule of 4 emperors

  • some of these achievements are creating fire temples, striking other faiths, punishment of Magi and converting people to Zoroastrianism

• describes a vision of the afterlife

  • He asked the Deities to show him what the afterlife for him looked like

  • Kerdir sends some boys on an otherwordly journey in which they follow his soul

How did Kerdir describe the afterlife?

• First Kerdir’s soul encounters a beautiful woman who walks him to Heaven

• They cross a bridge and underneath, there is hell

• hoped that this inscription will help people be more pious

How did the Sassanian rulers embrace other religions?

• Saw the other religions and their followers as beneath them

  • treatment of followers of other religions varied; Christians and Jews contribute to the cause of good

  • Religions considered Idolatrous, or seen as a threat to Zoroastrianism in terms of being the state religion were not tolerated

• Zoroastrianism was meant to bring salvation

What was Christianity like during the Sassanian period?

• not persecuted

• Allowed Christians to be apart of Imperial administration

• violence was rarely used against Christians, and if it was not, it was not used because of the fact that they are Christian

• the occasional use of violence fulfilled its purpose of communicating to Christians the boundaries of their action

  • Despite Incidents of disrespect of these boundaries, a widespread respect of them helped Christians improve their status and conditions

• Churches were built in the Sassanian empire

Why did the Sassanians take the true cross?

It was thought that the Christian God supported the Sassanian empire and it held great significance for the Christians in the empire

The cross returned to Jerusalem before the fall of the empire

Where was the most substantial Jewish community located in the empire?

Babylonia

How did Jews coexist with the Zoroastrians?

They were fully integrated into Sasanian society and interacted with other communities of the empire, and drew from Sasanian culture

What is a Magical bowl?

These testify the exchanges between Jews and members of other ethnicities

These were written in Aramaic dialects

What are the general ideas seen in the Eschatology in Zoroastrianism?

• the den (the woman) meets the soul after the death

  • can either be a beautiful girl or an ugly hag

• the soul is guided to the bridge and crosses over it; the bridge is called cinwad

  • if the soul is righteous, it will reach heaven; if it is unrighteous, it will fall into hell

• pahlavi texts add details that are not found in the Avesta

  • a divine tribunal judges the soul of the dead by the bridge

  • the sins and good deeds of the soul are weighed on a scale

  • the weighing determines the soul’s fate

    • this view might have entered in the Achaemenid period, from Egypt when it was a part of the empire

  • some souls go to a place named Hamestagan (a name of uncertain meaning)

    • they go here when their sins and good deeds are of the same weight

      • this is like the middle bit, purgatory

• The souls of the dead, wait in heaven, Hamestagan or hell until the resurrection of the bodies

Who are the Seleucids?

This was the Greek Dynasty that ruled over the Iranian region after the death of Alexander the Great

Who are the Parthians?

Defeated the Seleucids in 2nd century BCE

The empire that resulted (Parthian empire) had a mixture of Greek influence and preservation of Iranian Traditions

When did the Sasanians gain power?

224 CE Ardashir defeated the Parhian king Ardawan

This resulted in Persia being the center of the Iranian empire

Empire was defeated in the mid 7th century by the Arabs

Why does the Sassanian period have the most sources than any other previous period?

Zoroastrianism was the official religion of the empire

Despite the emperors being Zoroastrian, what challenges did the religion face when trying to establish itself as the state religion?

Had to confront the challenge of other religions existing in the empire

Zoroastrian leaders were able to put other religions of the empire in a position of subordination

What was the religious function of the Sassian emperor?

• had religious training

• they were directly involved in religious matters

• Sassanian kingship was seen as sacred

  • kingship was granted by Ahura Mazda and other divine beings

  • Emperors had a royal glory (xwarrah)

How were Sassanian emperors related to Ahura Mazda?

• seen as representatives of Ahura Mazda

• Serves key cosmic functions, by guaranteeing law and order

How did the sacredness of the Emperor affect deposing of emperors?

• It made it easier, deposing him was a religious duty

• a bad ruler was not accompanied by the forces of good

  • The emperor was not divine or sacred, the kingship was

What were some of the visual representations of the emperors?

• coins represented the king wearing a crown hat

  • this was meant to symbolize the xwarrah (royal glory)

    • the attributes symbolized the deities who assist the emperor

  • on the other side of the coin there was a fire altar

    • this altar represents the rulers connection to the religion and the connection to the divine world

• There are bas-reliefs (carvings) in which the emperor is made to look like the deity who invests in him

What doers Chihr mean?

Means semen or origin, but it also means visible form, and it was used to describe the kings as “those who have the aspect of the deities”

What is the Pahlavi cosmic history?

It has the same 3 stages of the one found in the Avesta

What was the main language of the Sassanian empire?

Pahlavi

What is the relationship between Ahura Mazda and Angra?

Ohrmazd (Ahura Mazda) is aware of Ahriman (Angra Mainyu), but Ahriman is not aware of Ohrmazd

How logn does the Cosmic period last for?

12,000 years

What happens in the first 6,000 years according to Pahlavi texts?

Ohrmazd performs a creation, and the creation will be the instrument to defeat Ahriman

First 3,000 years Ohrmazd shapes his creation in a spiritual state and Ahriman creates demonic spirits and Ahriman plans to move to attack Ohrmazd's creation

Before the fight starts, they both sign a treaty they will wage war for 9,000 years

Second 3,000 years the creation of the material state occurs, during this period Angra Mainyu is put in a stupor

What were the first 7 creations of Ahura Mazda?

Sky

Water

Earth

A plant

A man

A bovine

Fire

What happened during the second 6,000 years?

This is the mixture period (mix of good and evil), this period was introduced by the attacks of Ahriman after the she-demon wakes Ahriman

Ahriman and his demons enter the sky, and the deities make the sky a fortress, trapping the evil spirits allowing them to be defeated

The plant, bovine and first man are killed, the first human couple is born from the seed of the first human

In the year 9000 Zoroaster at the age of 30 gets revelation from Ohrmazd and he starts preaching

What events will happen in the years 10k, 11k and 12k?

3 saviours will come, each will be born of 3 virgins, and they get pregnant from Zoroaster’s semen when they bathe in a lake

What will the saviours bring?

The first 2 will bring peace to the world for 3 and 6 years

The last one, Soshans, will bring the final salvation of the world, and will resurrect the dead bodies which will then be followed by universal judgement

What will happen when the last saviour is here?

A river of fire purifies sinners from their sins and destroys hell

All humans then drink a beverage and become immortal

The chief demons are destroyed by the divine spirits and Ahriman abandons the world defeated

What is the find period of cosmic history?

Separation starts

The universe will live in spiritual and material bliss and will forever be pure

When did Parsis begin writing in English, and why?

In the late 1800s, Western-educated Parsis started using English for literary purposes due to British cultural influence and widespread Anglophilia

What type of writing dominated early Parsi literature in English?

Poetry dominated early Parsi writing in English, often imitating English poetry and focusing on religion.

How did Parsi English literature evolve post-independence?

It gained autonomous characteristics, addressing identity issues in independent India. Religion became less central, and humor became a defining trait.

Name two prominent Parsi authors in English literature and their works.

• Bapsi Sidhwa: Notable for humorous and identity-centric prose.

• Rohinton Mistry: Wrote Tales from Ferozsha Baag (1987), Such a Long Journey (1991), A Fine Balance (1995), and Family Matters (2002).

When did Parsi theater emerge, and what languages were used?

Parsi theater emerged around 1850, performing plays in English and Gujarati.

Who was the center of the Parsi narratives?

The Parsis were typically at the center of the narrative

What innovations did Parsi theater introduce?

• Representation of contemporary life, often satirical.

• Use of special effects.

• Inclusion of women on stage.

• Painting backdrops to enhance the theatrical experience

• Use of music and dance included in the performance along with high quality acting and writing

How did Parsi theater impact Indian culture?

It merged Western and local traditions, contributed to vernacular theater, and incorporated high-quality scripts, acting, music, and scenic backdrops.

What is the significance of fire in Zoroastrianism?

Fire symbolizes purity, is present in all creatures, and serves as the main focus of worship, replacing all other icons.

Fire originates from the luminous heaven where Ahura Mazda resides

What are the three types of fire temples, and how are they ranked?

• Atash Bahram (highest holiness).

• Atash Adaran.

• Atash Dadgah (least holy).

Each of the temples have their own fires, and along with the temple the fires have a degree of holiness

What unique features are found in Parsi fire temples?

• Achaemenid motifs (e.g., winged disks).

• Fire chambers with specific rituals and tools like thongs, ladles, and sandalwood trays.

  • Only the Priests who tend the fire are allowed to enter it

Why is there no glass on the south wall of the fire chamber?

Prayers does not happen in the southern direction as this is the evil direction in Zoroastrianism

What are the key characteristics of the fire chamber in a Zoroastrian temple?

• Square-shaped, aligned with cardinal directions.

• Only priests may enter; the faithful pray outside the chamber.

• Furnished with a bell (rung 9 times during fire-feeding ceremonies), thongs, a ladle, and sandalwood offerings.

• Fire rests on a stone throne in a vase, covered with ash and embers, protected by a copper crown

What symbolic elements are present in Zoroastrian fire temples?

• Bull-headed mace: Represents priests’ authority and their role in combating evil.

• Swords and daggers: Symbolize protection of the sacred fire.

• Flues and multiple roofs: Ensure purity and prevent external pollution.

How are fire temples significant in Zoroastrian worship?

• Eternal flames represent purity and divine presence.

• Prayer rooms outside the fire chamber allow worshippers to connect with the fire.

• Temples facilitate the performance of high rituals like the Yasna.

What special features are required in fire temples for performing the Yasna?

• A dedicated space surrounded by furrows to prevent outside pollution.

• A well and specific trees (pomegranate and date) for ritual purposes.

What is the Sudreh, and what does it symbolize?

A white shirt worn for purity. Its small pouch collects religious merits, and its front/back represents the future/past.

What is the Kusti, and how is it worn?

• The Kusti is a sacred cord worn by Zoroastrians around the waist, over the Sudreh.

• Made from lamb’s wool, it consists of 72 interwoven threads, symbolizing the chapters of the Yasna (Zoroastrian scripture).

How is the Kusti made and consecrated?

• Handmade by women and consecrated by priests through prayers.

• After consecration, the cord is completed by the woman who turns it inside out and finishes knitting it.

How is the Kusti worn, and what actions accompany its tying?

• Tied in three rounds around the waist.

• Actions are linked to a prayer:

  • The cord is shaken to "shake away" evil when evil beings or principles are mentioned.

  • Knots are tied to symbolize commitment to Ohrmazd (God) and Zoroastrian principles.

What does the Kusti symbolize in Zoroastrianism?

• The circle it forms represents protection from evil.

• The three rounds symbolize the core ethical principles: Good Thoughts, Good Words, Good Deeds.

• It signifies a bond with Ohrmazd and readiness to fight for Good.

What do the 3 round of the cord represent in a Kusti?

Good thoughts, good words, good deeds

A bond to Ohrmazd

Symbolizes the person’s readiness to serve Ohrmazd and to fight for good

What role does food play in Zoroastrianism?

Food represents material life's positivity, with communal meals and prayers before and after eating.

What dietary restrictions do Zoroastrians observe?

• Avoid pork and beef.

• Abstain from meat on Wahman's days and after a relative’s death.

• Wine and dried fruits/nuts are central to celebrations.

How are communal meals important in Zoroastrianism?

• They involve members of different groups and both sexes mingling.

• Meals include food blessed by priests during rituals.

• Traditionally, prayers are recited before and after meals, and silence is maintained out of respect for deities protecting water and vegetation.

Where is parsi community located in India?

North West India in Gurjarat

How did the migration from Iran to India happen

• different waves

• wave 1

  • 9th century to escape persecution

• wave 2

  • 13th and 14th century, during the mongol and Turko-Mongol invasions that ravaged Iran

Did Parsis experience any troubles?

Not when they first got there

But they did become the targets of religious intolerance under the Muslim Sultanate

How did Zoroastrians get along with other groups during the 1500s?

The Mughal emperor Akbar that took over Indian and Gujarat was very open to Zoroastrianism

The Emperor had a priest explain the beliefs to him and the emperor included Zoroastrianism to the new religion he initiated

Why did many Parsis migrate to Bombay?

It was acquired by the British to be made a port and many went there to work, religious freedom was also guaranteed there.

How did Parsis manage to preserve their identity and merge with Indian society at the same time?

Preservation of the ethnic identity was allowed by the practice of marrying only within the group

Despite processes of adaptation, the core religious beliefs and rituals remain unchanged

Traditional buildings (like fire temples and death towers) were built

What are the main reasons that allowed the Parsis to integrate into the Indian community?

• There were parallels between Zoroastrianism and Hinduism

  • emphasis on purity and pollution

• Different aspects of local life were adopted

  • the use of Gujarati

• Parsis stopped the traditional sacrifice of the cow and stopped eating beef (along with pork to align with Muslims)

How did Parsi Zoroastrians preserve religious knowledge?

Ties with the Iranian community were preserved (allowed Parsis to copy manuscripts of Avestan texts, which were the basis of the rituals)

The ties also allowed for the Pahlavi texts to be used.

The Parsis would send scribes, priests and others to meet with Iranian religious leaders to discuss matters of religion and address questions

The people sent on these trips would have Revayat (accounts) of what was said and taught

What were some of the religious developments that took place in the 1700s?

A priest name Jamasp was invited from Iran to resolve religious disputes regarding funerary practices and a dispute about the calendar

The visit did not resolve the religious disputes

The Parsi calendar had one extra month compared to the Iranians

What was the schism that happened in the 1700s?

This was centered around the calendar

A group of Parsis decided to adopt the Irani calendar, this group also followed other aspects of Iranian practices

The majority of Parsis stuck to the traditional calendar and practices

What was a major side effect of the schism?

Most Parsis did not consider Iranian Zoroastrians as their reference point on religion with the last Revayat dating to 1773

How did Lay people react to the schism?

Some Lay Parsis expressed interest in direct knowledge of the Pahlavi and Avestan texts

There was an increased awareness and participation in religious matters

How is the concept of Purity based in theology?

The mixture phase has polluted the world

The human body reflects the presence of pollution

What are some causes of pollution?

A dead human body (the worst source)

Whatever that leaves a living body is impure (finger nails, hair, semen)

Animals (insects, reptiles and several beasts of prey)

Garbage, dirt and bad odours

Bad thoughts, words and acts are a source of spiritual pollution

Non-Zoroastrians are impure spiritually and physically

What are the key features of Zoroastrianism?

• one God, Ahura Mazda, made the world

• the world is a mixture of good and evil

• the ultimate goal of existence is to defeat evil

• history will have an end; this is when evil is defeated

• there is a notion of a world saviour who will come to restore order and justice

What role do humans play in Zoroastrianism?

• rituals are performed for the benefit of the good forces

• humans will be rewarded after death for their actions

What is the origin for the name of Zoroastrianism?

• comes from zoroaster

Where did the name Zoroaster come from?

• zarathustra was the original name, the Greek name became Zoroasteres then it became zoroaster

Approx how many Zoroastrians are there in the world according to the 2012 census?

110,000

India has the most at 61 k

Iran had around 15k