AP Psychology - Unit 3 Cognition & Memory

imported manually from gsheets, sorry for the random ""'s everywhere.

Thinking and Problem Solving

SECTION HEADER

cognition

mental processes involved in gaining knowledge and understanding; thinking, knowing, remembering, judging, problem-solving

concept

a mental category of some similar entity within the world - just an identification; e.g. "bird" to represent all small flying animals that have bodies that "look like birds"

schema

a collection of understandings, beliefs, associations, etc that are BASICALLY associated with a concept, usually due to experience and/or exposure

…can also be seen as uniting concepts with other ideas that we create from EXPERIENCE to understand sensory information around us & form perceptual sets; affect how we organize and sense information (from previous unit btw)

"
prototype

the hypothetical, most typical example of a concept/category; often specific to a person due to their experiences; representative of a category

"problem-solving techniques

range in use, speed, etc

strategy-based

• trial and error

• algorithm

• heuristic (representativeness, availability)

non-strategy

• insight

"
trial and error

problem-solving technique: trying everything until something works, without filtering

algorithm

problem-solving technique: using methodical, logical rules & catch-all procedures --> guarantee solving a particular problem; usually slower than more strategic versions like heuristics, but guaranteed to work

"heuristic

problem-solving technique: using a simple thinking strategy (a specific type of heuristic that could shortcut some thinking) to recognize a rule of thumb or simple pattern that allows faster judgment + problem-solving; more prone to error than algorithm

2 main types: representativeness; availability

"
"representativeness heuristic

estimating likelihood & making judgments according to: how well an event/entity seems to match/represent a prototype we are USED to; i.e. evaluating judgment based on how we'd evaluate if the prototype were applicable/true

e.g.
*danger: stereotyping --> may ignore other relevant information, e.g. the true likelihood statistically of something being true; can lead to negative results in society

"
"availability heuristic

estimating likelihood & making judgments according to: how easily available in memory instances of those events/entities are; i.e. believing something from past events that are memorable & applying it to the future.

factors of memorability: vividness, recency, distinctiveness, noisiness

e.g.

• gambling: makes wins more memorable --> skewed understanding of probability (wins seem more probable)

• death: makes certain serious dangers more memorable --> skewed understanding of true danger/deadliness of something

"
"insight

problem-solving ""technique"": sudden realization of a problem's solution without ANY sense of getting nearer to the answer; unlike strategy-based solutions

• problem-solving & attention -- activate frontal lobe before aha moment

• aha moment -- activate right temporal lobe

"
confirmation bias

tendency to look for information & confirmation (and only ACCEPT/refer to that) which SUPPORTS our preconceptions; also a tendency to ignore/distort contradictory evidence; and also ignore any evidence in the past that was contradictory/only remember confirming evidence

fixation (in cognition)

inability to see a problem from a new perspective (after been fixated on a certain perspective on something); an obstacle to problem solving

mental set

tendency to approach a problem in a particular way according to what's been SUCCESSFUL in the PAST; example/application of fixation

(perceptual set)

(from last unit) predisposition to perceive certain objects/entities in a certain way or with focus/attention on certain information, due to previous experience and perceptions/understandings; influenced by schema

functional fixedness

tendency to be fixed in understanding of FUNCTIONALITY of objects/entities due to previous understanding of how things are typically used, blind to potential of other things' use for same purpose; example/application of fixation

"overconfidence

tendency to be more confident that we're correct than actually being correct; overestimation of accuracy & judgments, being more certain/overconfident & then being wrong

tend to be MORE definite/sure when we know less (sometimes)

"
planning fallacy

tendency to overestimate future leisure time, income, etc; application of overconfidence

"belief perseverance

tendency to cling to one's initial conceptions, even though basis of original conception has been discredited (i.e. even with contradictory evidence)

people tend to dispute/discredit the other side if they already have a belief, even when if they didn't have a belief before, the other side would've convinced them with that exact evidence

"
cognitive dissonance

holding 2+ ideas that are in conflict with each other; we feel uncomfortable with this because we feel that contrast, so we essentially create our own justifications for why the two can coexist when they can't

motivated reasoning

using conclusions to assess evidence (i.e. for a specific purpose/to agree or disagree with it according to desired conclusion), rather than using evidence to draw conclusions

framing

when the way an issue is posed/presented (wording/presentation) is used to significantly affect our judgments and decisions; usually through connotation or presentation of info

"nudging

subtly rearranging options so that the person involved retains free will and control over their decisions, BUT encourages them to make a better decision by way of making the better options more convenient, etc
*form of choice architecture: choices being shaped by the way they are presented to us

examples:

• placing healthy food closer to people

• opt-in automatically for a retirement plan (""opt-out"" option) rather than requiring people to opt-in

"
cueing

using specific hints, prompts, or stimuli to bring back specific memories (think retrieval cues)

"intuition

deep-seated, effortless, immediate ""automatic"" feelings/thoughts due to subconscious/unconscious experience about how to approach something (contrast with all explicit/conscious reasoning) - kind of separate from everything else

pros

• recognition born from experience - we aren't aware of it, but our brains stored information; can actually help us more than conscious thinking in high-pressure/quick situations

• adaptive - usually helpful for survival, quick reactions

• huge! massive! - does a lot in the background
  cons

• if unreasoned, can lead to: negative effects in solving problems; bad at risk asssessment; bad decision making

"
creativity

ability to innovate & create valueable new ideas; can be less structured and routine

Memory Processes

SECTION HEADER

memory

persistence of learning & information learned throughout time; through encoding, storage, & retrieval of information

"Information-Processing Model

general model of memory: information is processed through 3 mechanisms - encoding, storage, retrieval

encoding: taking information from outside stimulus --> sensory --> short-term --> long-term
storage: retaining encoded information over time
retrieval: taking information out of memory storage effectively

"
"encoding

process of getting information INTO memory system - from sensory memory --> short-term memory; OR from short-term memory --> long-term memory; specifically one-sided process of moving information into the next register

sensory--short-term:

• usually through selective attention; selects most relevant sensory information to keep in short-term register (encoded), which may or may not be kept further

short-term--long-term:

• usually through rehearsal, shallow & deep processing, semantic encoding; selects important information from short-term to be encoded into long-term memory (where it must be stored through storage to be maintained)

"
storage

process of retaining encoded information over time

retrieval

process of getting information OUT of memory storage; basically "remembering" if you consider memory retention; ease of which can be measured through memory retention

parallel processing

processing of many aspects of a problem simultaneously; brain's natural mode of processing information for many functions; an aspect of our Information Processing Model to be accurate to the brain

"connectionism

an Information Processing Model; views memories as products of interconnected neural networks in brain that have particular activation patterns; network activations in specific ways cause memories to arise

learning: when brain's neural connections change, strengthening/forming new neural pathways

"
"memory consolidation

neural storage of a long-term memory

1. hippocampus - temporarily holds all elements of an episode (sensory info, memories); processes & registers information for encoding

2. after processing, then info moved to other parts of brain for storage, i.e. mainly the cortex
   *enhanced by deep sleep (greater heart activity + hippocampus activity) - spacing effect works to give brain more time to process and consolidate memories

"
Encoding (Memory Processes)

SECTION HEADER (added)

"implicit/nondeclarative memory

retention of learned skills (procedural memory) or classical conditioning (associations); doesn't matter whether consciously recollect learning this or not

stores:

• procedural memory
• classical conditioning and associations
• incidental information
  • space
  • time
  • frequency

*automatic processing

"
"automatic processing

unconscious encoding (directly to long-term) - process through which information UNCONSCIOUSLY enters long-term memory without consciously attending to it; from sensory memory --> long-term storage directly

*associated with implicit/nondeclarative memory

"
procedural memory

memory for automatic/learned skills; stored in the cerebellum; can be learned through automatic processing into long-term memory as implicit/nondeclarative memory

associations & classical conditioning, disposition

association: learning that two things go together; classical conditioning --> forms associations; can be remembered through implicit/nondeclarative memory, even unconsciously (through automatic processing)

"incidental information (automatic processing, implicit memory)

information about an episode/experience that gets automatically processed and encoded directly into long-term memory without conscious effort

• space: encoding placement/visual of a place; during retrieval, could visualize this

• time: encoding sequence of events & occurrences

• frequency: encoding how many times something occurs/is experienced

"
"explicit/declarative memory

retention of facts & experiences that one can consciously know & declare; focus of original 3-stage memory model

topics

• semantic memory
• episodic memory

processes

• sensory memory (iconic & echoic)
• short-term memory
• long-term memory
• and all other concepts associated with it!

*effortful processing

"
"effortful processing

conscious encoding (from short- to long-term through effort)

*associated with explicit/declarative memory; requires attention & conscious effort - see strategies below

"
iconic memory/icon (sensory memory)

very momentary sensory memory of visual stimulus; all of picture-image exists briefly for a few tenths of a second, then fades (very short, shorter than echoic)

George Sperling & "partial report technique"

proved via "report only partially" the line of flashed numbers on the screen (indicated by a tone played IMMEDIATELY afterward) --> people could do it accurately --> visual persistence occurs, can see everything but only for barely tenths of a second

echoic memory/echo (sensory memory)

very momentary sensory memory of auditory stimulus; lasts 3-4 seconds if attention is elsewhere; sounds & words can be recalled within 3-4 seconds (longer than iconic)

7 ± 2 information, lifespan (short-term memory)

a feature of short-term memory (under explicit/declarative memory); our ability to retain about 7 (give or take 2) pieces of information in short-term memory (e.g. ~7 digits remember); very short lifespan of short-term (50% lost after 3s, nearly 100% lost after 12s)

deep processing (effortful processing)

method of effortful processing; encoding semantically & deeply; focusing on meanings, implications; yields BEST retention

shallow processing (effortful processing)

method of effortful processing; encoding on a basic/shallow level, based on structure/appearance of words (e.g. letters or sound); worse retention than deep processing

rehearsal (helps with retrieval; methods of retrieval)

process of repeatedly practicing/reviewing information to improve memory encoding & storage - helps encode more strongly & improves storage and retention

maintenance rehearsal/retrieval

simple repetition of surface-level information to keep within short-term memory

elaborative rehearsal/retrieval

deeper encoding strategy - linking new information to known information, considering meaning & deep processing methods; to keep within long-term memory; *always MORE effective than maintenance for long-term

articulatory rehearsal/retrieval

a method of rehearsal specifically speaking terms out loud or in head to self; usually a type of maintenance rehearsal

Effortful Processing Techniques

MINI SECTION HEADER

chunking

organizing items into familiar & manageable units; e.g. splitting individual information pieces into more memorizable sections; enables recall of information + often happens automatically

mnemonics

memory aids - especially using vivid imagery/organizational devices or words. e.g. using memorizable string of words with strong visuals to remember other words; strong visual memory --> easier to make associations and recall info

peg-word system

subset of mnemonics - a jingle is memorized (catchy phrase of words) to memorize "peg words," then more words are attached to the peg-words to be memorized (visualization from peg words --> association)

acronym

word where letters all stand for other words; for memorization

hierarchies

composition of concepts where broader concepts > divided > subdivided… into narrower concepts/facts; method of processing information to better understand + recall it

method of loci

subset of mnemonics - remembering information by associating items for memorization --> specific LOCATIONS (visuals!) in a FAMILIAR MENTAL SPACE; associating each item to a familiar space --> can remember everything

dual-coding hypothesis

verbal (linguistic) & visual (imagery) channels of memory --> combined is better; e.g. associating a word with a photo of it is more easily remembered

"spacing effect

tendency for distributed study/practice to yield better long-term retention than massed study/practice

because:

• more reconstruction and recall for accuracy --> long-term potentiation, more diverse and robust memory traces

• compared to cramming: where rapid decay of memory happens bc of forgetting curve (lack of ""overlearning"")

• more time for sleep etc to solidify information into long-term memory

"
"testing effect (retrieval practice effect, test-enhanced learning)

enhanced memory after retrieving rather than rereading information; through self-testing

because:

• strong neural connections, forces you to organize knowledge yourself and reconstruct information

"
Models of Memory

SECTION HEADER

Information-Processing Model

described above

"Atkinson-Shiffrin Model (3-stage, multi-store model of memory)

external events --> sensory input --> [SENSORY MEMORY]

1. (to short-term) encoding: attention to important/novel info --> [SHORT-TERM/WORKING MEMORY] -- rehearsal and active maintenance
2. (to long-term) automatic processing

[SHORT-TERM/WORKING MEMORY] --> [LONG-TERM MEMORY STORAGE]
--> - encoding (deep processing)
<-- - retrieving (measures of memory retention)

"
"sensory memory/register

immediate, brief recording of sensory information into memory system; actually perceives everything at once (see echos & icons), but only retains very little into short-term memory
*encoding --> short-term

"
short-term memory/working memory

processed information that is being held onto briefly from the sensory memory; holds only 7 ish items briefly; kept in place with maintenance rehearsal

long-term memory

relatively permanent & limitless storehouse of memory system; includes knowledge, skills, experiences; requires elaborative rehearsal, REPEATED rehearsal, and encoding

"Working Memory Model, Baddeley Model

changes short-term memory into a working, active memory:

• central executive: hypothetical manager that keeps track of all information within working memory & decides what to discard and remember

• phonological loop (auditory rehearsal): auditory reception and continually playing echoes to keep them within working memory

• visuospatial sketchpad: mentally keeping track of visual information and icons to keep within working memory

• episodic buffer: corralling information from an episode to distill all information into one ""experience"" for later

"
Types of Long-Term Memory + Brain Structures & Memory

SECTION HEADER - putting together to get a better idea of how they fit together

"explicit/declarative memory

conscious, explicit memory that deals with facts/knowledge (semantic) or experienced events (episodic)

types:

• episodic memory
• semantic memory

(processing methods and types above - effortful processing -- deep processing, shallow processing)

"
episodic memory

explicit memory of experienced events (1/2 conscious memory)

semantic memory

explicit memory of facts & general knowledge (1/2 conscious memory)

"hippocampus

processes & stores NEW explicit memories for facts & episodes; necessary for encoding; associated with limbic system

• activated: when people form explicit memories of images, names, events

• 1st place is here - registered & processed by hippocampus; then go to other brain areas for storage (OTHER places, mainly cortex)

damage: disrupts formation + recall of explicit memories
section & functions

• left: verbal information; right: visual designs & locations

• other parts: social information processing, spatial; rear: spatial memory (navigating streets)

"
frontal lobes

processes & stores NEW explicit memories, particularly during working memory

"prefrontal cortex

working memory processing for new explicit memories

• left: numerical or literal words

• right: vivid imagery

"
"implicit/non-declarative memory

skills, conditioned associations, & physical learning
incidental information (space, time, frequency)

"
"cerebellum

required for forming & storing implicit memories by classical conditioning (CEREBELLUM!) (and also procedural memory but specifically motor skills associated with it)

• receives information from cortex (somatorsensory stmulation)

• controls reflexes according to that information by storing the memory; expects a certain stimulus after the first one, according to reflexes and conditioned response

"
"basal ganglia

deep brain structures involved in motor movement; required for formation of procedural memory and HABIT LEARNING!! for skills (BASAL GANGLIA!)

• receives information from cortex (somatosensory stimulation)

• learns & remembers when to INITIATE something (habit, procedures)

"
"""emotional"" factors in memory

apply to both explicit & implicit memory

• fear conditioning/emotional response conditioned (implicit)

• emotional state associated with a memory/experience (explicit, episodic)

*enhance memory of specifically the emotional part:

• horrific memories tend to resurface frequently

• tunnel vision memory --> only focused on the ""high priority"" emotional aspects and forget the rest of the context bc less attention on it

"
"amygdala

facilitate memory formation through release of stress hormones (glucose release for stress, etc) to allow for better retention of important moments
*emotional arousal --> sears memory into brain

"
memory trace

generally, a marker of a memory; often started by amygdala during emotional moments

"flashbulb memory

clear, sustained memory of an emotionally significant moment/event; often a worldly event or a highly influential/vivid personal experience
*memorable due to amygdala's release of stress hormones
*become more memorable due to rehearsal --> we talk about them a lot

"
general biology of memory

serotonin

neurotransmitter/hormone released when learning

adrenaline

neurotransmitter/hormone that increases learning immediately as well

synaptic changes due to learning

of synapses (i.e. # of connections between different neurons) INCREASES through learning; existing synapses are strengthened further by having more receptors & becoming more efficient at transmitting signals

long-term potentiation (LTP)

increase in neuron's firing potential/efficiency and connection with other neurons around it, due to stimulation from learning --> allows learning to occur in the first place & be retained and stored in long-term memory; essentially creates strengthened & "easier to fire" (spreading activation) connection between certain neurons connected via learning

glutamate

LTP-enhancing neurotransmitter; improves memory because helps with creating strengthened neural connections

CREB

LTP-enhancing protein that could be targeted by drugs to improve learning

Retrieval & Remembering

"memory retention & retrieval (remembering)

3 types/measures of retention & remembering:

• recall

• recognition

• relearning

2 exact measurement methods:

• measuring response speed for recall or recognition

• measuring relearning saved time

"
recall (retrieval measure)

measure of memory retention: retrieve information learned earlier (unconscious but existing) & produce it themselves (fill in blank)

"recognition (retrieval measure)

measure of memory retention: retrieve information learned earlier (unconscious but existing) & identify correct things according to what was previously learned (multiple choice)

*more vast and long-lasting than recall; can be more unconscious, but goes deeper

"
relearning (retrieval measure)

measure of memory retention: retrieve information earlier when learning material again & essentially assessing amt of time saved (how much less time it takes) to relearn material compared to 1st time

retrieval cues

other pieces of contextual information saved/associated with a crucial piece of information; allows for retrieval/access to that crucial information

priming

activation (often unconsciously) of particular associations in implicit/subconscious memory --> difference in perception/decision/etc; not currently in mind, but through "spread activation" (neurons associated with some activate the nearby ones), more likely to have previous memory predispose current interpretations

"context-dependent memory

memory depends on environment that surrounded the memory & can be recalled through this; e.g.

• stepping back to where we thought of it, physical environment