Master Lab Interpretation Table

Flashcards for Master Lab Interpretation

ALP (Alkaline Phosphatase)

Alkaline Phosphatase (ALP) is an enzyme primarily found in the liver and bone. Elevated levels in the blood may indicate liver diseases such as hepatitis or cirrhosis, or bone disorders like Paget's disease or bone cancer. Low levels are less common but can suggest malnutrition, hypophosphatasia, or Wilson's disease.

Reference Range: 30-120 U/L (values may vary slightly depending on the laboratory).

AST (Aspartate Aminotransferase)

Aspartate Aminotransferase (AST) is an enzyme found in high concentrations in the liver and muscle tissues. Elevated levels often indicate liver damage (e.g., from viral hepatitis, alcohol abuse, or medication side effects) or muscle injury (e.g., from trauma, intense exercise, or muscular dystrophy). It can also be elevated in heart conditions.

Reference Range: 10-40 U/L (values may vary slightly depending on the laboratory).

ALT (Alanine Aminotransferase)

Alanine Aminotransferase (ALT) is an enzyme mainly found in the liver. It is a more specific indicator of liver damage than AST. Elevated levels commonly suggest liver inflammation or injury due to conditions such as non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD), viral infections, or toxic drug reactions.

Reference Range: 7-56 U/L (values may vary slightly depending on the laboratory).

Bilirubin (Total)

Total Bilirubin is a measure of the total amount of bilirubin in the blood, which is a breakdown product of heme (part of hemoglobin in red blood cells). Elevated levels may indicate liver dysfunction (e.g., hepatitis, cirrhosis, gallstones blocking the bile duct) or hemolysis (excessive destruction of red blood cells). It can also be elevated in newborns.

Reference Range: 0.3-1.0 mg/dL (values may vary slightly depending on the laboratory).

BUN (Blood Urea Nitrogen)

Blood Urea Nitrogen (BUN) measures the amount of urea nitrogen in the blood, a waste product filtered out by the kidneys. Elevated levels typically indicate impaired kidney function (e.g., kidney disease, dehydration, urinary obstruction). Low levels are less common but can indicate severe liver disease, overhydration, or malnutrition.

Reference Range: 10-20 mg/dL (values may vary slightly depending on the laboratory).

Creatinine

Creatinine is a waste product from muscle metabolism, filtered by the kidneys. Elevated levels usually point to kidney dysfunction or kidney failure. Because creatinine production is related to muscle mass, normal ranges vary by sex. Low levels may be seen in individuals with low muscle mass or during pregnancy.

Reference Ranges: Male: 0.7-1.3 mg/dL; Female: 0.6-1.1 mg/dL (values may vary slightly depending on the laboratory).

Sodium

Sodium is an electrolyte regulated by the kidneys and adrenal glands, crucial for maintaining fluid balance, nerve function, and muscle contractions. Imbalances can indicate dehydration or fluid overload. Hyponatremia (low sodium) can be caused by SIADH, heart failure, or diuretic use. Hypernatremia (high sodium) can be caused by dehydration or diabetes insipidus.

Reference Range: 135-145 mEq/L (values may vary slightly depending on the laboratory).

Potassium

Potassium is an electrolyte vital for nerve and muscle function, especially the heart. Imbalances can result from kidney failure, certain medications (like diuretics), or dietary issues. Hypokalemia (low potassium) can be caused by diuretics, vomiting, or diarrhea. Hyperkalemia (high potassium) can be caused by renal failure, acidosis, or cell lysis (e.g., from tumor lysis syndrome).

Reference Range: 3.5-5.0 mEq/L (values may vary slightly depending on the laboratory).

Carbon Dioxide (Bicarbonate)

Carbon Dioxide (Bicarbonate) is a buffer in the blood that helps maintain the body's acid-base balance. Imbalances can indicate metabolic or respiratory problems. Low levels (metabolic acidosis) can be caused by diarrhea or renal disease. High levels (metabolic alkalosis) can be caused by excessive vomiting or certain medications.

Reference Range: 23-30 mEq/L (values may vary slightly depending on the laboratory).

Chloride

Chloride is an electrolyte that works with sodium and potassium to maintain fluid balance, blood volume, and blood pressure. Imbalances can be related to various conditions. Hypochloremia (low chloride) may indicate vomiting, SIADH, or Addison's disease. Hyperchloremia (high chloride) may indicate dehydration, kidney disease, or metabolic acidosis.

Reference Range: 96-106 mEq/L (values may vary slightly depending on the laboratory).

Albumin

Albumin is a protein produced by the liver that helps maintain osmotic pressure (keeping fluid within blood vessels) and transports hormones, vitamins, and other substances. Low levels may indicate liver disease (e.g., cirrhosis), malnutrition, or nephrotic syndrome. High levels are less common and can be due to dehydration.

Reference Range: 3.4-5.4 g/dL (values may vary slightly depending on the laboratory).

Total Protein

Total Protein measures the total amount of protein in the blood, including albumin and globulins. Low levels may indicate malnutrition, liver disease, or kidney disease. High levels may indicate chronic inflammation, infection, or certain types of cancer (e.g., multiple myeloma).

Reference Range: 6.0-8.3 g/dL (values may vary slightly depending on the laboratory).

Glucose (Fasting)

Glucose (Fasting) measures blood sugar levels after an overnight fast. Elevated levels indicate diabetes or prediabetes. Low levels indicate hypoglycemia, which can be caused by excessive insulin, skipping meals, or certain medical conditions.

Reference Range: 70-99 mg/dL (values may vary slightly depending on the laboratory).

Calcium (Total)

Total Calcium is a mineral essential for bone health, nerve function, muscle contraction, and blood clotting. Imbalances can be caused by parathyroid disorders, vitamin D deficiency, kidney disease, or certain medications. Hypocalcemia (low calcium) may indicate hypoparathyroidism or vitamin D deficiency. Hypercalcemia (high calcium) may indicate hyperparathyroidism or malignancy.

Reference Range: 8.5-10.5 mg/dL (values may vary slightly depending on the laboratory).

TSH (Thyroid Stimulating Hormone)

Thyroid Stimulating Hormone (TSH) is a hormone produced by the pituitary gland that stimulates the thyroid gland to produce thyroid hormones. Abnormal levels can indicate thyroid disorders. Low levels may indicate hyperthyroidism (overactive thyroid) or pituitary insufficiency. High levels usually indicate primary hypothyroidism (underactive thyroid).

Reference Range: 0.4-4.0 mIU/L (values may vary slightly depending on the laboratory).

Free T4 (Thyroxine)

Free Thyroxine (Free T4) measures the unbound, active form of thyroxine (T4) in the blood. It provides a more accurate assessment of thyroid function than total T4. Low levels indicate hypothyroidism. High levels indicate hyperthyroidism.

Reference Range: 0.8-1.8 ng/dL (values may vary slightly depending on the laboratory).

Free T3 (Triiodothyronine)

Free Triiodothyronine (Free T3) measures the unbound, active form of triiodothyronine (T3) in the blood. It is often measured along with Free T4 to assess thyroid function. Low levels indicate hypothyroidism. High levels indicate hyperthyroidism.

Reference Range: 2.3-4.2 pg/mL (values may vary slightly depending on the laboratory).

Hemoglobin A1c

Hemoglobin A1c (HbA1c) measures average blood sugar levels over the past 2-3 months by assessing the percentage of hemoglobin that is glycated (bound to glucose). It is used to diagnose and monitor diabetes. High levels indicate prediabetes or diabetes. Low levels can indicate hypoglycemia or certain types of anemia.

Reference Range: <5.7% (values may vary slightly depending on the laboratory).

Total Cholesterol

Total Cholesterol measures the total amount of cholesterol in the blood, including LDL, HDL, and VLDL. High levels indicate hyperlipidemia and increased cardiovascular risk (e.g., heart attack, stroke). Low levels are less common but may indicate malnutrition, liver disease, or malabsorption.

Reference Range: <200 mg/dL (values may vary slightly depending on the laboratory).

LDL (Low-Density Lipoprotein)

Low-Density Lipoprotein (LDL) is often called "bad cholesterol" because it contributes to plaque buildup in arteries (atherosclerosis), increasing the risk of heart disease and stroke. Elevated levels indicate an increased risk of atherosclerosis.

Reference Range: <100 mg/dL (values may vary slightly depending on the laboratory).

HDL (High-Density Lipoprotein)

High-Density Lipoprotein (HDL) is often called "good cholesterol" because it helps remove cholesterol from arteries, reducing the risk of heart disease and stroke. High levels are considered cardioprotective. Low levels indicate an increased cardiovascular risk.

Reference Ranges: Male: >40 mg/dL; Female: >50 mg/dL (values may vary slightly depending on the laboratory).

Triglycerides

Triglycerides are a type of fat in the blood. High levels are associated with an increased risk of heart disease and can be caused by diabetes, obesity, metabolic syndrome, excessive alcohol use, or a high-carbohydrate diet. Low levels are less common, but may indicate malnutrition, hyperthyroidism, or malabsorption.

Reference Range: <150 mg/dL (values may vary slightly depending on the laboratory).

UA - Specific Gravity

Urine Specific Gravity measures the concentration of particles in urine, reflecting the kidney's ability to concentrate urine. High levels indicate concentrated urine, potentially due to dehydration, glycosuria (glucose in urine), or SIADH. Low levels indicate dilute urine, potentially due to overhydration, diabetes insipidus, or kidney disease.

Reference Range: 1.002-1.030 (values may vary slightly depending on the laboratory).

UA - pH

Urine pH measures the acidity or alkalinity of urine. Low levels (acidic urine) may indicate acidosis, a high-protein diet, or uncontrolled diabetes. High levels (alkaline urine) may indicate a urinary tract infection (UTI), a vegetarian diet, or kidney stones.

Reference Range: 4.5-8.0 (values may vary slightly depending on the laboratory).

UA - Protein

Urine Protein: Normally, there should only be a small amount of protein in the urine. High levels (proteinuria) can indicate kidney damage or conditions like nephrotic syndrome, pre-eclampsia (in pregnancy), or strenuous exercise.

Reference Range: Negative to trace (values may vary slightly depending on the laboratory).

UA - Glucose

Urine Glucose: Normally, there is no glucose in the urine. High levels (glucosuria) can indicate diabetes mellitus (uncontrolled blood sugar), stress, Cushing's syndrome, or pregnancy.

Reference Range: Negative (values may vary slightly depending on the laboratory).

UA - Ketones

Urine Ketones: Ketones are produced when the body breaks down fat for energy. Normally, there are no ketones in the urine. High levels (ketonuria) can indicate fasting, diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA), a low-carbohydrate diet, or prolonged vomiting.

Reference Range: Negative (values may vary slightly depending on the laboratory).

UA - Blood

Urine Blood: Normally, there should be no blood in the urine. High levels (hematuria) can indicate a urinary tract infection (UTI), kidney stones, trauma, certain medications, or kidney disease.

Reference Range: Negative (values may vary slightly depending on the laboratory).

Vitamin D (25-hydroxy)

Vitamin D (25-hydroxy Vitamin D) measures the level of vitamin D in the blood. Low levels indicate vitamin D deficiency, which can lead to bone problems (e.g., osteoporosis, rickets) and other health issues. High levels indicate vitamin D toxicity, usually from excessive supplement intake.

Reference Range: 30-100 ng/mL (values may vary slightly depending on the laboratory).

Ferritin

Ferritin is a protein that stores iron. Low levels indicate iron deficiency anemia. High levels indicate iron overload, hemochromatosis, inflammation, or liver disease.

Reference Ranges: Male: 20-250 ng/mL; Female: 10-120 ng/mL (values may vary slightly depending on the laboratory).

Total Iron Binding Capacity (TIBC)

Total Iron Binding Capacity (TIBC) measures the blood's capacity to bind iron with transferrin. Low levels indicate hemochromatosis, chronic disease, or malnutrition. High levels indicate iron deficiency or pregnancy.

Reference Range: 250-450 mcg/dL (values may vary slightly depending on the laboratory).

Serum Iron

Serum Iron measures the amount of iron in the blood. Low levels indicate iron deficiency anemia. High levels indicate hemolysis (breakdown of red blood cells) or iron overload.

Reference Ranges: Male: 65-175 mcg/dL; Female: 50-170 mcg/dL (values may vary slightly depending on the laboratory).

CRP (C-Reactive Protein)

C-Reactive Protein (CRP) is a marker of inflammation in the body. High levels indicate acute inflammation, infection, autoimmune disorders, or certain cancers. It is a non-specific marker, meaning it indicates inflammation but not the cause or location.

Reference Range: <1.0 mg/dL (values may vary slightly depending on the laboratory).

ESR (Erythrocyte Sedimentation Rate)

Erythrocyte Sedimentation Rate (ESR) measures how quickly red blood cells settle in a test tube. High levels indicate inflammation, infection, autoimmune diseases (e.g., rheumatoid arthritis, lupus), or certain cancers. Low levels can be seen in sickle cell anemia or polycythemia vera.

Reference Ranges: Male: 0-15 mm/hr; Female: 0-20 mm/hr (values may vary slightly depending on the laboratory).

hCG (Human Chorionic Gonadotropin)

Human Chorionic Gonadotropin (hCG) is a hormone produced during pregnancy. High levels indicate pregnancy. It is also used as a tumor marker for certain types of cancer.

Reference Range: <5 mIU/mL (non-pregnant) (values may vary slightly depending on the laboratory).

GFR (Glomerular Filtration Rate)

Glomerular Filtration Rate (GFR) estimates how well the kidneys filter blood. Low levels indicate chronic kidney disease (CKD) or kidney failure. It is calculated using age, sex, race, and creatinine levels.

Reference Range: >60 mL/min/1.73 m^2 (values may vary slightly depending on the laboratory).

ALP (Alkaline Phosphatase)

Alkaline Phosphatase (ALP) is an enzyme primarily found in the liver and bone; it catalyzes the hydrolysis of phosphate esters in an alkaline environment. Elevated levels may indicate liver diseases such as hepatitis or cirrhosis, or bone disorders like Paget's disease or bone cancer. Low levels are less common but can suggest malnutrition, hypophosphatasia, or Wilson's disease.

Normal values: 30-120 U/L.

AST (Aspartate Aminotransferase)

Aspartate Aminotransferase (AST) is an enzyme found in high concentrations in the liver and muscle tissues; it helps in amino acid metabolism. Elevated levels often indicate liver damage (e.g., from viral hepatitis, alcohol abuse, or medication side effects) or muscle injury (e.g., from trauma, intense exercise, or muscular dystrophy). It can also be elevated in heart conditions.

Normal values: 10-40 U/L.

ALT (Alanine Aminotransferase)

Alanine Aminotransferase (ALT) is an enzyme mainly found in the liver; it is more specific to liver damage than AST. Elevated levels commonly suggest liver inflammation or injury due to conditions such as non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD), viral infections, or toxic drug reactions.

Normal values: 7-56 U/L.

Bilirubin (Total)

Total Bilirubin is a measure of the total amount of bilirubin in the blood, which is a breakdown product of heme (part of hemoglobin in red blood cells). Bilirubin is processed in the liver, and elevated levels may indicate liver dysfunction (e.g., hepatitis, cirrhosis, gallstones blocking the bile duct) or hemolysis (excessive destruction of red blood cells). It can also be elevated in newborns.

Normal values: 0.3-1.0 mg/dL.

BUN (Blood Urea Nitrogen)

Blood Urea Nitrogen (BUN) measures the amount of urea nitrogen in the blood, a waste product filtered out by the kidneys. Urea is formed in the liver as part of the body's protein breakdown process. Elevated levels typically indicate impaired kidney function (e.g., kidney disease, dehydration, urinary obstruction). Low levels are less common but can indicate severe liver disease, overhydration, or malnutrition.

Normal values: 10-20 mg/dL.

Creatinine

Creatinine is a waste product from muscle metabolism, filtered by the kidneys. Elevated levels usually point to kidney dysfunction or kidney failure. Because creatinine production is related to muscle mass, normal ranges vary by sex. Low levels may be seen in individuals with low muscle mass or during pregnancy.

Normal values: Male: 0.7-1.3 mg/dL; Female: 0.6-1.1 mg/dL.

Sodium

Sodium is an electrolyte regulated by the kidneys and adrenal glands, crucial for maintaining fluid balance, nerve function, and muscle contractions. Imbalances can indicate dehydration or fluid overload. Hyponatremia (low sodium) can be caused by SIADH, heart failure, or diuretic use. Hypernatremia (high sodium) can be caused by dehydration or diabetes insipidus.

Normal values: 135-145 mEq/L.

Potassium

Potassium is an electrolyte vital for nerve and muscle function, especially the heart. It helps maintain cellular electrical potential. Imbalances can result from kidney failure, certain medications (like diuretics), or dietary issues. Hypokalemia (low potassium) can be caused by diuretics, vomiting, or diarrhea. Hyperkalemia (high potassium) can be caused by renal failure, acidosis, or cell lysis (e.g., from tumor lysis syndrome).

Normal values: 3.5-5.0 mEq/L.

Carbon Dioxide (Bicarbonate)

Carbon Dioxide (Bicarbonate) is a buffer in the blood that helps maintain the body's acid-base balance. It is a component of the bicarbonate buffering system. Low levels (metabolic acidosis) can be caused by diarrhea or renal disease. High levels (metabolic alkalosis) can be caused by excessive vomiting or certain medications.

Normal values: 23-30 mEq/L.

Chloride

Chloride is an electrolyte that works with sodium and potassium to maintain fluid balance, blood volume, and blood pressure. It is the major extracellular anion. Hypochloremia (low chloride) may indicate vomiting, SIADH, or Addison's disease. Hyperchloremia (high chloride) may indicate dehydration, kidney disease, or metabolic acidosis.

Normal values: 96-106 mEq/L.

Albumin

Albumin is a protein produced by the liver that helps maintain osmotic pressure (keeping fluid within blood vessels) and transports hormones, vitamins, and other substances. Low levels may indicate liver disease (e.g., cirrhosis), malnutrition, or nephrotic syndrome. High levels are less common and can be due to dehydration.

Normal values: 3.4-5.4 g/dL.

Total Protein

Total Protein measures the total amount of protein in the blood, including albumin and globulins. It is a general measure of protein status. Low levels may indicate malnutrition, liver disease, or kidney disease. High levels may indicate chronic inflammation, infection, or certain types of cancer (e.g., multiple myeloma).

Normal values: 6.0-8.3 g/dL.

Glucose (Fasting)

Glucose (Fasting) measures blood sugar levels after an overnight fast. It is a key indicator of carbohydrate metabolism. Elevated levels indicate diabetes or prediabetes. Low levels indicate hypoglycemia, which can be caused by excessive insulin, skipping meals, or certain medical conditions.

Normal values: 70-99 mg/dL.

Calcium (Total)

Total Calcium is a mineral essential for bone health, nerve function, muscle contraction, and blood clotting. It is tightly regulated by parathyroid hormone and vitamin D. Hypocalcemia (low calcium) may indicate hypoparathyroidism or vitamin D deficiency. Hypercalcemia (high calcium) may indicate hyperparathyroidism or malignancy.

Normal values: 8.5-10.5 mg/dL.

TSH (Thyroid Stimulating Hormone)

Thyroid Stimulating Hormone (TSH) is a hormone produced by the pituitary gland that stimulates the thyroid gland to produce thyroid hormones (T4 and T3). It is the primary screening test for thyroid disorders. Low levels may indicate hyperthyroidism (overactive thyroid) or pituitary insufficiency. High levels usually indicate primary hypothyroidism (underactive thyroid).

Normal values: 0.4-4.0 mIU/L.

Free T4 (Thyroxine)

Free Thyroxine (Free T4) measures the unbound, active form of thyroxine (T4) in the blood. It provides a more accurate assessment of thyroid function than total T4. Low levels indicate hypothyroidism. High levels indicate hyperthyroidism.

Normal values: 0.8-1.8 ng/dL.

Free T3 (Triiodothyronine)

Free Triiodothyronine (Free T3) measures the unbound, active form of triiodothyronine (T3) in the blood. It is often measured along with Free T4 to assess thyroid function as T3 is the more active thyroid hormone. Low levels indicate hypothyroidism. High levels indicate hyperthyroidism.

Normal values: 2.3-4.2 pg/mL.

Hemoglobin A1c

Hemoglobin A1c (HbA1c) measures average blood sugar levels over the past 2-3 months by assessing the percentage of hemoglobin that is glycated (bound to glucose). It is used to diagnose and monitor diabetes as it reflects long-term glycemic control. High levels indicate prediabetes or diabetes. Low levels can indicate hypoglycemia or certain types of anemia.

Normal values: <5.7%.

Total Cholesterol

Total Cholesterol measures the total amount of cholesterol in the blood, including LDL, HDL, and VLDL. High levels indicate hyperlipidemia and increased cardiovascular risk (e.g., heart attack, stroke). Low levels are less common but may indicate malnutrition, liver disease, or malabsorption.

Desirable levels: <200 mg/dL.

LDL (Low-Density Lipoprotein)

Low-Density Lipoprotein (LDL) is often called "bad cholesterol" because it contributes to plaque buildup in arteries (atherosclerosis), increasing the risk of heart disease and stroke. Elevated levels indicate an increased risk of atherosclerosis.

Optimal values: <100 mg/dL; Near optimal: 100-129 mg/dL; Borderline high: 130-159 mg/dL; High: 160-189 mg/dL; Very high: >190 mg/dL

HDL (High-Density Lipoprotein)

High-Density Lipoprotein (HDL) is often called "good cholesterol" because it helps remove cholesterol from arteries, reducing the risk of heart disease and stroke. High levels are considered cardioprotective. Low levels indicate an increased cardiovascular risk.

Normal values: Male: >40 mg/dL; Female: >50 mg/dL.

Triglycerides

Triglycerides are a type of fat in the blood. High levels are associated with an increased risk of heart disease and can be caused by diabetes, obesity, metabolic syndrome, excessive alcohol use, or a high-carbohydrate diet. Low levels are less common but may indicate malnutrition, hyperthyroidism, or malabsorption.

Normal values: <150 mg/dL.

UA - Specific Gravity

Urine Specific Gravity measures the concentration of particles in urine, reflecting the kidney's ability to concentrate urine. High levels indicate concentrated urine, potentially due to dehydration, glycosuria (glucose in urine), or SIADH. Low levels indicate dilute urine, potentially due to overhydration, diabetes insipidus, or kidney disease.

Normal values: 1.002-1.030.

UA - pH

Urine pH measures the acidity or alkalinity of urine. It provides information about the body's acid-base balance and kidney function. Low levels (acidic urine) may indicate acidosis, a high-protein diet, or uncontrolled diabetes. High levels (alkaline urine) may indicate a urinary tract infection (UTI), a vegetarian diet, or kidney stones.

Normal values: 4.5-8.0.

UA - Protein

Urine Protein: Normally, there should only be a small amount of protein in the urine. High levels (proteinuria) can indicate kidney damage or conditions like nephrotic syndrome, pre-eclampsia (in pregnancy), or strenuous exercise.

Normal values: Negative to trace.

UA - Glucose

Urine Glucose: Normally, there is no glucose in the urine. High levels (glucosuria) can indicate diabetes mellitus (uncontrolled blood sugar), stress, Cushing's syndrome, or pregnancy.

Normal values: Negative.

UA - Ketones

Urine Ketones: Ketones are produced when the body breaks down fat for energy. Normally, there are no ketones in the urine. High levels (ketonuria) can indicate fasting, diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA), a low-carbohydrate diet, or prolonged vomiting.

Normal values: Negative.

UA - Blood

Urine Blood: Normally, there should be no blood in the urine. High levels (hematuria) can indicate a urinary tract infection (UTI), kidney stones, trauma, certain medications, or kidney disease.

Normal values: Negative.

Vitamin D (25-hydroxy)

Vitamin D (25-hydroxy Vitamin D) measures the level of vitamin D in the blood. It is the major circulating form of vitamin D and indicates overall vitamin D status. Low levels indicate vitamin D deficiency, which can lead to bone problems (e.g., osteoporosis, rickets) and other health issues. High levels indicate vitamin D toxicity, usually from excessive supplement intake.

Normal values: 30-100 ng/mL.

Ferritin

Ferritin is a protein that stores iron, primarily in the liver, spleen, and bone marrow. It is an indicator of the body's iron stores. Low levels indicate iron deficiency anemia. High levels indicate iron overload, hemochromatosis, inflammation, or liver disease.

Normal values: Male: 20-250 ng/mL; Female: 10-120 ng/mL.

Total Iron Binding Capacity (TIBC)

Total Iron Binding Capacity (TIBC) measures the blood's capacity to bind iron with transferrin, the major iron-transport protein. It is an indirect measure of transferrin levels. Low levels indicate hemochromatosis, chronic disease, or malnutrition. High levels indicate iron deficiency or pregnancy.

Normal values: 250-450 mcg/dL.

Serum Iron

Serum Iron measures the amount of iron in the blood. It is bound to transferrin. Low levels indicate iron deficiency anemia. High levels indicate hemolysis (breakdown of red blood cells) or iron overload.

Normal values: Male: 65-175 mcg/dL; Female: 50-170 mcg/dL.

CRP (C-Reactive Protein)

C-Reactive Protein (CRP) is a marker of inflammation in the body. It is an acute-phase protein produced by the liver in response to inflammation. High levels indicate acute inflammation, infection, autoimmune disorders, or certain cancers. It is a non-specific marker, meaning it indicates inflammation but not the cause or location.

Normal values: <1.0 mg/dL.

ESR (Erythrocyte Sedimentation Rate)

Erythrocyte Sedimentation Rate (ESR) measures how quickly red blood cells settle in a test tube. It is an indirect measure of inflammation. High levels indicate inflammation, infection, autoimmune diseases (e.g., rheumatoid arthritis, lupus), or certain cancers. Low levels can be seen in sickle cell anemia or polycythemia vera.

Normal values: Male: 0-15 mm/hr; Female: 0-20 mm/hr.

Human Chorionic Gonadotropin (hCG)

Human Chorionic Gonadotropin (hCG) is a hormone produced during pregnancy by the placenta. High levels indicate pregnancy. It is also used as a tumor marker for certain types of cancer (e.g., gestational trophoblastic disease, germ cell tumors).

Normal values: <5 mIU/mL