Anatomy- Lab Exam

Label diagram

1. ocular lens

2. course focus knob

3. fine focus

4. power switch

5. rotating nosepiece

6. object lenses

7. stage control

8. condenser

9. diaphragm lever

10. lamp

11. base

12. lamp brightness control knob (other side)

13. stage control knobs

ocular lens

• lens in a microscope or telescope that is closest to the eye of the viewer

• used to magnify the image formed by the objective lens or mirror and allows the viewer to see the enlarged image.

• 10x

objective lens

• lens in optical instruments, such as microscopes and telescopes

• responsible for gathering and focusing light onto the focal point

• usually located at the front of the instrument and has a larger diameter compared to other lenses in the system

• 4x, 10x, 40x, and 100x

base

• sturdy bottom part that provides stability and support for the entire microscope

• typically flat and wide to prevent the microscope from tipping over during use

• The base also houses the illuminator or light source in some microscopes, providing the necessary light for viewing specimens

course focus knob

• big knob on left side

• moves stage up and down

• don’t use after setting it with the 4x

condenser

• responsible for focusing and directing light onto the specimen

• located below the stage

• helps to enhance the resolution and brightness of the image.

diaphragm lever

• used to control the amount of light passing through the specimen.

• located below the condenser

• can be adjusted to regulate the intensity and focus of the light.

• By manipulating the diaphragm lever, the user can enhance contrast and improve visibility of the specimen.

fine focus knob

• It allows for precise adjustment of the focus of the microscope's objective lens, enabling clear and detailed viewing of the specimen under observation

lamp

• provide light for the specimen being observed

• it helps to enhance visibility and clarity by directing light onto the sample.

mechanical stage

• platform that holds the specimen slide in place and allows for precise movement and positioning

• typically consists of two knobs or controls that control the horizontal (x-axis) and vertical (y-axis) movement of the stage

• This enables the user to easily navigate and focus on different areas of the specimen under the microscope

rotating nosepiece

• device that holds multiple objective lenses.

• By rotating the nosepiece, different objective lenses can be brought into position, allowing for different levels of magnification and focus.

• This feature enables users to easily switch between lenses without having to manually remove and insert them, making it more convenient and efficient for microscopy.

stage clip

• mechanism used to hold a slide or specimen in place on the stage of the microscope.

• It ensures that the slide remains steady and secure during observation and allows for precise positioning of the specimen under the microscope's objective lenses.

stage control knobs

• allow users to adjust the position and movement of the microscope stage

• typically include a coarse adjustment knob for larger movements and a fine adjustment knob for more precise positioning

• By turning these knobs, users can move the stage horizontally or vertically to focus on different areas of the specimen being observed.

tube

• the microscope's eyepiece or ocular lens

• look through to observe the specimen.

• connects eyepiece to the objective lenses, allowing the light from the specimen to pass through and be magnified.

label cell

1. centrioles (in centrosomes)

2. chromatin

3. nucleolus

4. nuclear membrane (envelope)

5. nucleus

6. lysosome'

7. SER

8. golgi bodies

9. RER

10. ribosomes

11. cytoplasm

12. plasma membrane

13. mitochondria

nucleus

• membranous

• double membrane

• control center

• has DNA, RNA, proteins, and nucleolus

nucleolus/nucleoli

• non-membranous

• ribosome synthesis

• contains DNA, RNA, and proteins

mitochondria

• membranous

• ATP synthesis

• double membrane

• has own protein, RNA, and DNA

ribosomes

• non-membranous

• rRNA for translating

• 2 types: free and bound

• free- suspended in cytosol, makes proteins for nucleus, mitochondria, and cytosol

• bound- attached to RER, makes protein for everywhere else

rough ER

• membranous

• makes secretory, lysosomal, and secretory proteins

smooth ER

• membranous

• makes lipids and steroid hormones

• attached to RER

golgi apparatus

• sorts, packages, and finalizes proteins/lipids to cell membrane, lysosomes, or for secretions

centrosomes

• non-membranous

• organizes microtubules and spindle apparatus (cell division)

• has 2 centrioles and a pericentriolar matrix

nuclear membrane

• double membrane'

• covers nucleus

• protects genetic material

chromatin

• unwounded DNA

• found in nucleus

cytoplasm

• area between nuclear and cell membrane

• 2 components- organelles and cytosol

• organelles: functioning structures of cell

• cytosol: gel-like component, water and suspension of carbs, lipids, and proteins, may have inclusions (melanin or glycogen)

mitosis

• essential for growth and repair of cells

• 1 cell divides into 2 diploid

• genetically identical

interphase

• first stage of cell division

• 3 stages: G1, S, G2

G1 (interphase)

• growth and metabolism

• centrosome replication begins

S (interphase)

• chromatin replicates and is attached by centromeres

• kinetochore proteins form

G2 (interphase)

• growth and metabolism

• makes enzymes and specific proteins needed for cell division

prophase

• chromatin condenses into chromsomes

• nucleoli and envelope disappear

• centrosomes move to opposite poles

• microtubules form spindle apparatus and attach to kinetochore proteins

• spindle moves chromosomes toward cell equator

metaphase

• 46 chromosomes line up along cell equator

anaphase

• spindle shortens, pulls kinetochores apart, separating centromeres

• 46 chromsomes move to each pole

• cytokinesis begins

telophase

• chromsomes uncoil to chromatin

• nucleoli and nuclear membrane reappear

• spindle disappears

cytokinesis

• division of cytosol

meiosis

• produces gamete

• 1 diploid (zygote) = 4 haploid cells

prophase I

• homologous chromsomes attach to each other = tetrads

• crossing over occurs (genetic diversity)

• normal prophase activities

metaphase I

• 23 tetrads line across cell equator

anaphase I

• tetrads separate and migrate to opposite poles (46 chromsomes)

telophase I

• normal telophase activities

• no homologous chromsomes (crossed over)

• 2 haploid daughter cells formed

meiosis II

• same as meiosis I but with 23 chromosomes instead of 46

• prophase Il, metaphase ll, anaphase ll, and telophase ll

homologous chromosomes

• pair of chromosomes

• get one from each parent

• same length

• same centromere position

• same genes (not always same alleles)

• present in mitosis and meiosis I

• separated in anaphase II

diploid cells

• 2n

• refers to number of chromosomes

• has homologous chromsomes

• 46 chromosomes

haploid

• n

• refers to number of chromosomes

• does not have homologous chromsomes

• 23 chromosome

sister chromatids

• formed in S in interphase

• exact same genetically

label

1. embryoblast (inner cell mass)

2. trophoblast

3. blastocyst cavity

   (early blastocyst)

label

1. embryonic disc

2. yolk sac

3. chorion

4. amnion

5. amnion cavity

6. epiblast

7. hypoblast

   (20 day embryo)

label

1. chorionic villi

2. chorion

3. yolk sac

4. umbilical cord

5. amnion

6. embryo

7. amnionic cavity

   (9-12 day embryo)

label

1. chorionic villi

2. umbilical cord

3. amnion

4. ammonic cavity

5. chorion

6. embryo

7. yolk sac

   (4 week embryo)

zygote

• diploid

• fertilized egg

• goes through rapid miotic divisions called cleavage divisions

morula

• solid ball of 16-32 cells

• occurs after 72 hours of fertilization

• no differentiation of cells (blastomeres)

blastocyst

• hollow sphere of cells

• occurs after 6 days

• differentiation of cells

• forms blastocyst cavity, embryoblast, and trophoblast

embryoblast

• inner cell mass

• cells divide and differentiate to form embryo

• forms bilayer embryonic disc: epiblast and hypoblast

hypoblast

• undergoes mitosis to form yolk sac

epiblast

will undergo mitosis to form: amnion (with amnion cavity) and 3 germ layers

amnion

• fluid filled cavity that surrounds embryo with amnionic fluid

• function of fluid- shock absorption and temp regulation

ectoderm

• will form nervous system and epidermis of skin

mesoderm

• will form muscles, most bones, cardiovascular system, and dermis of skin

endoderm

• will form epithelial linings of digestive, respiratory, urinary, and reproductive systems and their associated glands

yolk sac

• derived from hypoblast

• forms part of gut (gastrointestinal tract)

• produces earliest blood cells and vessels

• source of primordial germ cells (reproductive cells)

trophoblast

• made of trophoblast cells

• cells divide and differentiate to form chorion

chorion

• from trophoblast cells

• surrounds all embryonic membranes

• chorionic villi- projections of chorion containing blood vessels that will form fetal part of placenta

implantation

• attachment of blastocyst to endometrium of uterine wall after 6 days

label

stratified columnar

1. free surface

2. basement membrane

3. nucleus

4. cytoplasm

5. cell membrane

label

1. dermis

2. epidermis

3. arrector pili muscle

4. sebaceous glad

5. hair shaft

6. hair root

7. fair follicle

8. papillary layer

9. meisner’s corpuscle

10. recticular layer

11. sweat gland

12. bottom layer (hyperdermis)

13. pacinian corpuscles

    A. hairy scalp

    B. skin of armpit

    C. hairless skin of foot sole

    (skin model)

label

1. cell membrane

2. cytoplasm

3. free surface

4. nucleus

5. basement membrane

label

1. ground substance

2. nucleus

3. collagen fibers

label

dense regular

1. nucleus

2. collagen fibers

label

adipose CT

1. nucleus

2. lipid (fat) droplets in vacuoles

3. cell membrane

label

areolar ct

1. nucleus

2. collagen fibers (pink, denser)

3. ground substance

4. elastin fibers (usually darker)

label

stratified squamous

1. cytoplasm

2. nucleus

3. free surface

4. cell membrane

5. basement membrane

label

1. stratum corneum

2. stratum basale

3. stratum spinosum

4. stratum grandulosum

   (thin skin)

label

1. stratum corneum

2. stratum lucidum

3. stratum granulosum

4. stratum spinosum

5. stratum basale

   (thick skin)

epithelial tissue

• covers/lines surface of body/cavities

• have a free layer

• surface attached to basement membrane (CT)

types of epithelial tissues

• based off layering and cell shape

• stratified, simple, transitional, pseudostratified, and glandular

simple epithelial

• 1 layer '

• allows exchange of molecules for absorption and secretion

simple squamous

• 1 layer

• flat or squashed cells

• ex. lungs

simple cuboidal

• 1 layer

• cube shaped

• ex. kidneys

simple columnar

• 1 layer

• long and thin

• ex. stomach and small intestine

stratified squamous

• more than 1 layer

• flat

• ex. skin

stratified cuboidal

• more than 1 layer

• cube shaped

• ex. duct of salivary gland

stratified columnar

• more than 1 layer

• long and thin

• ex. linings of urethra

connective tissue

• supports and connects tissue

• if cells are far apart, separated by extracellular matrix

• extracellular material give CT subtypes with identifying characteristics

• variable vascularity

CT cell types

• BLAST- creates matrix

• CYST- maintains matrix

• CLAST- breaks down matrix

CT subtypes

• bone, blood, CT proper, cartilage

bone

• cells- osteoblasts, osteoclasts matrix, osteocytes

• ground substance- hydroxyapatite (inorganic Ca++ ions and phosphate salts) and organic components

• fibers- collagen

blood

• cells- RBC and WBC

• matrix (fluid)- plasma (fibers, water, and ground substance)

CT proper

• cells- fibroblasts, fibrocytes except adipose tissue (adipocytes)

• types: dense CT and loose CT

areolar CT

• loose CT

• loosely arranged collagen and elastin fibers are surronded by ground substance (hyaluronic acid)

• highly vascular

• ex. lamina propria

adipose CT

• loose CT

• very little matrix

• highly vascular

• cells large (adipocytes), store triglyceride

loose CT

2 types: areolar and adipose

dense CT

• many fibers (fiber proteins)

• little ground substance

• poorly vascular

• 2 types: dense regular CT and dense irregular CT

dense regular CT

• collagen fibers running in same direction

• ex. ligaments and tendons

dense irregular CT

• collagen fibers arranged irregularly

• ex. dermis of skin

cartilage

• cells- chondroblasts, chondrocytes

• fibers- collagen and elastin

• ground substance- chondroitin sulphate and hyaluronic acid

• avascular

• ex. hyaline cartilage of trachea, ribs, and ends of long bones

glandular tissue

• for secretion

• if epithelial cells form a gland, cell shapes and layering are no longer used for classifications

• 2 types- exocrine glands and endocrine glands

exocrine glands

• secretes body products onto body surface or into cavities

• unicellular or multicellular

unicellular exocrine

• secretes mucus onto tracts of the digestive, respiratory, urinary, and reproductive systems

• ex. goblet cells

multicellular exocrine

• consists of secretory and duct cells

• ducts are connect secretions to body surface or cavities)

• ex. sweat, sebaceous, mammary, digestive, etc