Studied by 21 peopleMental Images / Cognitive Maps
Mental image of event, person, object, etc.
should be similar to real life representations (sometimes not)
Divergent Thinking
= brainstorming
= vomiting out many ideas
Convergent Thinking
= choosing the best choice after brainstorming
Analysis
breaking down
ex. breaking an assignment down into small pieces (doing it step-by-step) or assigning a piece to each group member
Synthesis
putting all the pieces together
ex. in the final days before deadline, all group members put work together
concepts and categories
= mentally grouping ideas
concepts = mental representations of categories
prototype
= template = best example of an object in a category
ex. a dog for a house pet
bad ex. a hedgehog for a house pet
Superordinate Category
= the biggest category
highest in the hierarchy
ex. vehicles
basic category
= the mid-level category
ex.
(Vehicles > ) car, bus, truck
Subordinate Category
= most specific category
ex.
(Vehicles > Truck > ) Dump Truck or Pickup Truck
Identify the Problem
Problem Solving Step #1
__I__DEAL
Cognitive Appraisal → “Is this actually a problem or am I overreacting?”
Define the Problem
Problem Solving Step #2
I__D__EAL
What specific kind of problem is it?
Explore Potential Solutions
Problem Solving Step #3
ID__E__AL
(Divergent thinking)
Act on the best solution
Problem Solving Step #4
IDE__A__L
(Convergent Thinking)
Look at your progress
Problem Solving Step #5
IDEA__L__
(metacognition → thinking about your thinking)
Well-defined Problems
= aren’t necessarily easy to solve, but the way to solve it is clear (AKA you don’t have to be creative in finding a solution)
ex. complicated math problems
Algorithm
= logical, methodical procedure
guarantees a solution
BUT it’s slow
ex. going up and down each and every aisle in grocery store looking for ketchup
Heuristic
= shortcut to help solve problems faster
more error-prone than an algorithm
BUT faster
ex. going straight to the sauce aisle for ketchup
Ill-defined Problems
= a type of problem where the solution path and even goal is not clear
(you don’t even know what problem you’re trying to solve)
usually employs insight learning
ex. brain teasers
Dunker’s Candle
= an example of an ill-defined problem
= a cognitive performance test, measuring the influence of functional fixedness on a participant's problem-solving capabilities
solve the problem of a candle dripping wax onto a table using only what was in front of them; a box of thumb tacks and a book of matches
Most people didn't see the creative way to solve the problem, which was to tack the box (from the tacks) to the wall and put the lit candle in the box.
He then rearranged the task so that the tacks were originally outside of the box
Duncker found that people generally solved this much easier, as they viewed the box as and object of use, instead of just a container to hold the tacks \n
9-dot problem
= an example of an ill-defined problem
= a mathematical puzzle whose task is to connect nine squarely arranged points by four straight lines without lifting the pen
→ You should try to avoid getting locked into a certain perspective (AKA viewing it as being constrained by the edges of the points)
Tower of Hanoi
= an example of an ill-defined problem
= a simple mathematical puzzle often employed for the assessment of problem-solving and in the evaluation of frontal lobe deficit
planning and working memory
Hobbits and Orcs (Wolf, Sheep, and Cabbage)
= an example of an ill-defined problem
brain teaser
Transfer
a strategy in problem solving
= using what was learned in past to solve similar problems
“Is there something similar I’ve solved in the past?”
becomes easier as you get older and gain experience/wisdom
Incubation
a strategy in problem solving
= letting problem sit in the back of mind for awhile
Metacognition
a strategy in problem solving
= stop and evaluate how you’re doing
correct if there is a better way
bad ex. dads not use GPS, failing to use metacognition (being stubborn, brute forcing a problem)
Expertise
a strategy(?) in problem solving
= doing research, learning more then come back to problem
ex. getting stuck on a math problem, but after a lot of studying/classwork/asking questions and getting a better understanding of the unit, can come back to problem and it seems easy!
helps make sense of a lot of info
experts can solve harder problems and remember much more about their field
Creativity
a strategy in problem solving
= looking at a problem from a different perspective
avoiding a mental set
Mental Set
an obstacle in problem solving
= tendency to stick with the most familiar solution to a problem (algorithm/heuristic) and stubbornly ignore alternatives
Fixation
an obstacle in problem solving
= failing to think outside the box
basically a synonym for “mental set,” just more general term
Implicit Assumptions
an obstacle in problem solving
= understandings or expectations that are reasonably implied by the context
assumptions that haven't been articulated
made based on our own experiencewithout even realizing that that's what we're doing
Functional Fixedness
an obstacle in problem solving
= only seeing a tool as its sole function
ex. needing a hammer, but failing to see a brick, log, textbook, etc. as functional alternatives
ex. In the Dunker’s candle problem: failing to see the box as a viable tool instead of just a container
Representativeness Heuristic
and
Base Rate
one cause of faulty-decision making
= making PROBABILITY judgements of how likely an event is to occur in some category based on the extent of how similar it is to the prototypical example of that category
(AKA assuming that the prototype represents the entire category)
associated with prototype theory
ex. meeting someone that looks like a stereotypical med student → you judge that their probably studying medicine (w/o hard evidence to support that assumption)
Prototype
= the pinnacle example of something
Availability Heuristic
one cause of faulty-decision making
= tendency to use info that comes to mind quickly and easily when making decisions
→ AKA singular, memorable moments have an outsized influence on decisions
often occurs when trying to make judgements about the FREQUENCY with which a certain event occurs
ex. when you win at slots, lots of flashing lights and music (memorable)
when you lose at slots, nothing happens (not memorable)
→ thus, you think you are more likely to win than not (which is false)
Interference (Stroop Effect)
a cause of faulty-decision making
= delay in reaction time between congruent and incongruent stimuli
ex. having a faster response at identifying the color of a word when the word is in that color than when it is not
Overconfidence Bias
a cause of faulty-decision making
= tendency to be more confident in one’s own abilities than is objectively reasonable
Illusion of Control (Dunning-Kruger Effect)
a cause of faulty-decision making
= when a person’s lack of knowledge/skills in an area causes them to overestimate their own abilities
AKA one’s own lack of knowledge prevents one from understanding one’s own incompetence
the effect also causes professionals to think the task is simple for everyone, and underestimate their relative abilities, too
Confirmation Bias
a cause of faulty-decision making
= tendency to look for and favor evidence that confirms ideas while avoiding contradictory evidence
Belief Perseverance
a cause of faulty-decision making
= tendency to cling to INITIAL conceptions despite contrary evidence
Self-Serving Bias
a cause of faulty-decision making
= tendency for people to give themselves credit for success, but blame failures on outside causes
ex.
good grade → “I must’ve studied well”
bad grade → “Must’ve been bad luck/circumstances”
Anchoring Bias
a cause of faulty-decision making
= tendency to be overly influenced by the first piece of information that we hear
and using it as a frame of reference for future info as comparison
Framing
a cause of faulty-decision making
= how info is presented (context around info)
can significantly affect judgement
related to loss aversion and endowment effect
Loss Aversion Bias
a cause of faulty-decision making
= tendency to prefer avoiding losses than acquiring equivalent gains
describes why pain of losing is psychologically twice as powerful as the pleasure of gaining
ex. losing $20 hurts more than gaining $20
explains the Endowment Effect
Endowment Effect
a cause of faulty-decision making
= an emotional bias where individuals value an OWNED object more than its market value
often is irrational
is explained by Loss Aversion
Note 
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