SACR1100 Mid-Term Exam 1

Exam 1 based of lectures 1-4, main points from studocu guide from this class this year!

Sociology

Sociology

is the study of social life, focusing on society, social processes, and social institutions. It helps assess commonsense ideas and dispel faulty assumptions while connecting with popular culture and engaging with the social world. It differs from psychology, which studies individuals and has affinities with disciplines like history, political science, and criminology.

Society

refers to a structured community with a common culture, institutions, and social relationships. It encompasses various social processes and institutions that shape human behaviour and interactions. Understanding it involves recognizing the social context in which experiences and actions occur, as emphasized in sociological thinking.

Sociological Imagination

is the ability to connect personal troubles to larger social issues, recognizing that individual experiences often reflect broader societal patterns. It emphasizes understanding the relationships between personal circumstances and social contexts, allowing for a deeper comprehension of social problems. This perspective encourages moving beyond individualistic thinking to see the "forest beyond the trees" in social life.

Socialization

is the lifelong process through which individuals learn and internalize the values, beliefs, norms, and behaviors of their society. It occurs through various agents, such as family, peers, schools, and media, shaping one's identity and social skills. Socialization is crucial for functioning within society and contributes to the continuity of culture across generations.

Racism

a belief system that asserts the superiority of one race over others, leading to discrimination and prejudice based on racial or ethnic differences. It manifests in various forms, including individual attitudes, institutional practices, and systemic inequalities that disadvantage marginalized groups. Understanding this involves recognizing its historical roots, social implications, and the need for social justice and equity.

Human fascination

the innate curiosity and interest that individuals have towards understanding themselves, others, and the world around them. This drives exploration, creativity, and the pursuit of knowledge across various fields, including sociology, psychology, and anthropology. It plays a crucial role in shaping cultural narratives and social interactions, influencing how societies evolve and adapt.

Cultural Variation

the differences in cultural practices, beliefs, values, and norms that exist among various societies or groups. It highlights how culture shapes individual and collective identities, influencing behaviors and social interactions. Understanding cultural variation is essential for appreciating diversity and fostering cross-cultural communication and respect.

Game playing

engaging in structured activities with rules, often for entertainment, competition, or social interaction. It can serve as a means of socialization, teaching strategy, teamwork, and problem-solving skills. Additionally, game playing can reflect and influence cultural values and social dynamics within a society.

Division of labor

refers to the allocation of different tasks and responsibilities among individuals or groups within a society or organization. This specialization enhances efficiency and productivity, as individuals focus on specific roles that match their skills and expertise. The concept is fundamental in understanding how complex societies function and maintain stability through interdependence.

Social internalization

the process through which individuals adopt the norms, values, and beliefs of their society, making them part of their own personal identity. This process occurs through interactions with various social agents, such as family, peers, and institutions, shaping behavior and attitudes. Internalization is crucial for social cohesion, as it helps individuals align their actions with societal expectations.

C. Wright Mills

American sociologist best known for his concept of the "Sociological Imagination," which emphasizes the connection between personal experiences and larger social forces. He argued that understanding the interplay between individual troubles and societal issues is essential for grasping the complexities of social life. Mills' work encourages critical thinking about social structures and the impact of power dynamics on individual experiences.

Enlightenment

An intellectual movement (17th-18th centuries) emphasizing reason, science, and individualism over tradition and religion. It shaped modern democracy, human rights, and education. Key figures include John Locke, Voltaire, and Immanuel Kant.

Auguste Comte

A French philosopher, father of sociology, and founder of positivism. He proposed three stages of human thought: theological, metaphysical, and scientific, advocating for scientific methods in studying society.

Positivism

A philosophical approach that emphasizes knowledge from empirical evidence and scientific methods. It focuses on studying social phenomena through observation, aiming to develop general laws explaining social behavior.

Social Institutions

Established systems that organize social behavior, promoting stability and order. Examples include family, education, religion, economy, and government, which shape behavior and societal norms.

Social Roles

Expected behaviors and norms tied to a position in a group or society. They guide interactions, vary by culture and context, and influence self-identity.

Social Relationships

Connections between individuals or groups, marked by behavior, communication, and emotional ties. They range from friendships to professional associations and impact social support and well-being.

Status

refers to a recognized social position that an individual occupies within a group or society, which often comes with specific expectations and privileges.

Role

is the set of behaviors and responsibilities associated with a particular status, guiding how individuals are expected to act in various social contexts.

Interaction

involves the dynamic exchanges between individuals, where they communicate and respond to each other

negotiation

is the process through which individuals manage and adjust their roles and relationships, often involving compromise and agreement.

Structural functionalism

A sociological view of society as a system of interrelated parts that maintain stability. Emile Durkheim argues that social structures and their functions are essential for analyzing social phenomena and maintaining societal cohesion.

Symbolic interactionism

A micro-level perspective focusing on the meanings individuals assign to social interactions and symbols. Key figures like George Herbert Mead and Charles Horton Cooley argue that society is constructed through these interactions and subjective meanings.

Conflict theory

A macro-level perspective associated with Karl Marx, suggesting societies are unequal due to power differences in class, race, gender, and age, leading to conflict and social change. In criminology, it examines the link between power dynamics and crime.

Max Weber

A key sociologist known for interpretivism and the study of social action. He emphasized verstehen—understanding the subjective meanings of actions—and explored bureaucracy, authority, and the link between culture and economic systems.

Karl Marx

A foundational figure in sociology and economics, known for critiquing capitalism and the concept of class struggle. He identified the division between the bourgeoisie (Haves) and the proletariat (Have Nots), laying the groundwork for Conflict Theory and highlighting power disparities.

Feminist theory

A theory examining how societies are structured by patriarchy, highlighting systemic inequalities faced by women. It advocates for female empowerment and critiques ideologies that marginalize women's experiences, addressing both personal relationships and broader societal structures.

Verstehen

A German term meaning "meaningful understanding," emphasizing comprehending individuals' perspectives and experiences. It involves empathy, as articulated by Atticus Finch, and is central to the interpretivist approach in sociology, focusing on subjective interpretations of social phenomena.

Quantitative methods

involve the collection and analysis of numerical data to identify patterns, test theories, and make generalizations, often using statistical techniques

qualitative methods

focus on understanding the meanings and experiences behind social phenomena through non-numerical data, such as interviews and observations. Both approaches serve different research goals and can complement each other in sociological studies.

Indigenous methodologies

such as storytelling, community visiting, and art creation emphasize respect for Indigenous values and protocols

Social research

The systematic study of society and social behavior, aiming to understand social processes, institutions, and relationships. It uses quantitative and qualitative methods to gather data, with the goal of informing policy, practice, and theory in social sciences.

Research Cycle

A systematic process guiding researchers through research stages

1. Identifying a research problem (formulating a question).

2. Literature review (reviewing existing research).

3. Research design (choosing methodologies).

4. Data collection (gathering data).

5. Data analysis (analyzing collected data).

6. Reporting and dissemination (sharing findings).

Research Ethics

Moral principles guiding researchers to ensure integrity and protect participants. Key considerations include informed consent, voluntary participation, confidentiality, and avoiding harm. Adhering to ethical guidelines, like the TRI-COUNCIL Policy Statement and the Canadian Sociological Association Code of Ethics, is vital for maintaining trust in social research.

Bias

Systematic errors or prejudices affecting the validity and reliability of study findings. Forms include selection bias, confirmation bias, and measurement bias, leading to skewed results. Recognizing and minimizing bias is essential for maintaining research integrity and credibility.

Cultural Relativism

The principle of understanding cultural practices within their own context, avoiding judgment by another culture's standards. It promotes tolerance, cultural diversity, and helps prevent ethnocentrism in sociological thinking.

Social Norms

Unwritten rules and expectations that govern behavior within a society or group, defining what is acceptable or unacceptable. They influence individuals' actions and interactions, shaping social behavior and community functioning.

Ethnocentrism

The belief that one's own culture is superior, leading to judging other cultures by one's own standards. It can cause misunderstanding, prejudice, and discrimination. Challenging ethnocentrism is key to promoting cross-cultural understanding and respect.

Relativism

The belief that values, beliefs, and truths are relative to cultural, social, or historical contexts. It suggests that different perspectives are valid within their own contexts, promoting open-mindedness and tolerance toward diverse viewpoints and lifestyles.

Cultural Universals

Elements common to all human cultures, like family structures, language, religion, and social norms. They serve similar functions across societies, helping sociologists understand shared human experiences while appreciating cultural diversity.

Conflict Theory Approach to Culture

It suggests that cultural practices and beliefs are shaped by power dynamics and inequalities, reflecting dominant groups' interests. Culture can maintain power or serve as resistance for marginalized groups, highlighting its role in perpetuating or challenging inequalities in class, race, and gender.

Feminism Theory Approach to Culture

It examines how cultural norms perpetuate patriarchy and gender inequality, critiquing the representation of women in cultural narratives. The approach advocates for female empowerment, recognition of women's experiences, and transforming cultural structures to promote gender equity.

Functionalist Theory Approach to Culture

It views culture as essential for societal stability and functioning. Cultural norms, values, and practices promote social cohesion, reinforce order, and help society adapt to change, maintaining overall societal equilibrium

Symbolic Interactionism Approach to Culture

It focuses on the meanings individuals assign to cultural symbols through social interactions. Culture is created and maintained through these interactions, with meanings constantly negotiated and redefined, highlighting the subjective nature of culture shaped by personal experiences.

Language

A system of symbols and rules for communication, allowing individuals to convey thoughts, emotions, and cultural meanings. It shapes social identity, facilitates interaction, transmits cultural knowledge, and influences how people perceive the world.

Cultural Capital Theory

Developed by Pierre Bourdieu, it refers to non-financial social assets like education, cultural knowledge, and social skills that influence social mobility and status. It highlights how cultural capital provides advantages in contexts like education and employment, often perpetuating social inequalities.

Role Conflict

It occurs when an individual faces competing demands from different social roles, leading to stress and confusion. This conflict can arise when one role's responsibilities interfere with another, highlighting challenges in navigating multiple identities and societal expectations.

Symbols of Interaction

Objects, gestures, words, or images that carry specific meanings within social contexts, facilitating communication. In symbolic interactionism, they are essential for understanding how individuals create and interpret meanings, shaping social reality and influencing perceptions, behaviors, and relationships.

High-Culture

Cultural products, practices, and values associated with the elite or upper classes, characterized by sophistication and artistic excellence. It includes art, literature, and music seen as prestigious, contrasting with popular culture, which is more accessible to the general public.

Sub-Culture

A group within a larger culture that shares distinct values, norms, and behaviors, differentiating it from mainstream culture. Subcultures develop unique identities, symbols, and practices, providing members with a sense of belonging and often resisting dominant cultural norms.

Material Culture

The physical objects, artifacts, and technology created and used by people in a society. It includes tools, clothing, buildings, and art, reflecting a culture's values, beliefs, and practices, and shaping social interactions while providing insights into a community's lifestyle and identity.

Non-Material Culture

The intangible aspects of a culture, including beliefs, values, norms, customs, and language that shape social behavior and interactions. It encompasses ideas and practices that influence perceptions and engagements with the world, essential for understanding the meanings guiding a society's way of life.

Pop-Culture

Encompasses ideas, practices, and phenomena prevalent in mainstream society, often driven by mass media and consumerism. It includes music, fashion, television, and trends that resonate with a broad audience, reflecting contemporary social values. Pop culture helps sociologists analyze societal norms, behaviors, and the impact of cultural products on everyday life.

Counter-Culture

A social movement or group that actively rejects and opposes dominant cultural norms and values of mainstream society. Members create alternative lifestyles and beliefs, promoting social change or resistance. Examples include the 1960s hippie movement and punk culture, both challenging cultural standards and expressing dissent.

Organizational Culture

The shared values, beliefs, practices, and behaviors that shape the social and psychological environment of a workplace. It influences employee interactions, decision-making, and work approach, impacting overall performance and satisfaction. A strong culture fosters identity and belonging, while a weak culture may lead to confusion and disengagement.

Cultural Values and Norms

Shared beliefs and rules that guide behavior within a society. They shape individual actions and societal expectations, influencing interactions and perceptions of the world. Understanding these values and norms is essential for analyzing social behavior and cultural dynamics.

Cultural Values and Norms

Shared beliefs and rules that guide behavior within a society. They shape individual actions and societal expectations, influencing interactions and perceptions of the world. Understanding these values and norms is essential for analyzing social behavior and cultural dynamics.

Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis

A linguistic theory suggesting that the structure and vocabulary of a language influence how its speakers perceive and think about the world. It posits that language shapes thought processes, meaning that different languages may lead to different ways of understanding and interpreting experiences.

Personal Space

The physical distance individuals maintain between themselves and others during interactions. It varies by culture and context, influencing comfort levels and social behavior. Personal space can affect communication, relationships, and perceptions of intimacy.

Power

the ability to influence or control the behavior of others, while authority is the recognized right to exercise that power

Authority

often arises from established structures, like government or organizational hierarchies

Primary and Secondary Agents of Socialization

include family and close caregivers, crucial for early development and instilling core values.

Secondary agents

such as schools, peers, media, and religious institutions, shape beliefs and behaviors later in life. Both are essential for integrating individuals into society and influencing social identity.

Freud: Theory of Psychosexual Stages

It posits that human development occurs in five stages: oral, anal, phallic, latency, and genital. Each stage focuses on different erogenous zones, and unresolved conflicts can lead to fixation, influencing adult personality. The theory emphasizes the impact of early childhood experiences on psychological development and behavior.

Piaget: Theory of Cognitive Development

It outlines four stages: sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational. Each stage represents a different way of thinking and understanding the world, with children progressing through them as they interact with their environment. The theory highlights the importance of active learning and maturation in cognitive development.

Piaget: Theory of Cognitive Development - Sensorimotor Stage (0-2 years)

Infants learn through sensory experiences and motor actions, developing object permanence and understanding that objects exist even when not seen.

Piaget: Theory of Cognitive Development - Preoperational Stage (2-7 years)

Children begin to use language and think symbolically but lack logical reasoning; they are egocentric and struggle with understanding others' perspectives.

Piaget: Theory of Cognitive Development - Concrete Operational Stage (7-11 years)

Children develop logical thinking about concrete events, understand the concept of conservation, and can classify objects based on multiple criteria.

Piaget: Theory of Cognitive Development - Formal Operational Stage (12 years and up)

Adolescents develop abstract reasoning, problem-solving skills, and the ability to think about hypothetical situations, allowing for more complex and systematic thinking.

What is the concept of "significant other" in Mead's theory?

It refers to individuals who profoundly influence a person's self-concept and socialization, such as parents, close friends, or mentors. They shape identity by providing feedback, guidance, and emotional support, helping individuals understand societal expectations and roles. Interactions with significant others are crucial for developing empathy and the ability to take the role of the other, essential for social functioning.

What do Mead's concepts of "I" and "Me" represent?

The "I" is the spontaneous, creative, and individual response to the world, while the "Me" is the socialized aspect that reflects societal expectations and norms. The "I" acts on impulse and personal desires, whereas the "Me" is shaped by interactions with others and the internalization of societal roles. Together, they form a dynamic interplay that influences behaviour and self-perception in social contexts.

Kohlberg’s stages of Moral Development - Pre-conventional Level

• Stage 1: Obedience and Punishment Orientation - Moral reasoning is based on avoiding punishment.

• Stage 2: Individualism and Exchange - Right actions are determined by individual needs and interests

Kohlberg’s stages of Moral Development - Conventional Level

• Stage 3: Good Interpersonal Relationships - Morality is based on gaining approval from others and maintaining relationships.

• Stage 4: Maintaining Social Order - Emphasis on obeying laws and fulfilling duties to maintain societal order.

What is Cooley's "Looking-Glass Self"?

It is a concept describing how an individual's self-concept is shaped by perceptions of how others view them. It involves three components: imagining how we appear to others, imagining their judgment of that appearance, and developing a self-feeling (like pride or shame) based on those perceptions. This process emphasizes the social nature of self-identity and the influence of social interactions on personal self-concept.

Internalization

the process by which individuals adopt the beliefs, values, norms, and behaviors of their social environment, making them part of their self-concept. This occurs through socialization and interactions with significant others, integrating external influences into one's internal belief system. It often leads to conforming to societal expectations and norms, shaping identity and behavior, sometimes without conscious awareness.

Multiple Selves

It refers to the idea that individuals possess different identities or self-concepts that emerge in various social contexts and relationships. Each self is shaped by the roles one plays (e.g., parent, friend, professional) and varies based on the expectations and norms of those situations. This multiplicity allows individuals to adapt their behavior and self-presentation according to the social environment, reflecting the complexity of human identity.

Development of the Self

process shaped by social interactions and experiences, where individuals form their self-concept through feedback from others. Key theorists like Mead emphasize that the self emerges from taking the role of the other, helping individuals understand themselves in relation to society. This ongoing development can lead to either a positive or negative self-concept, depending on the nature of these interactions and the societal context.

Role of Technology in Socialization

pPlays a significant role in socialization by providing platforms for communication, interaction, and information dissemination. It influences how individuals connect, form relationships, and develop identities, often transcending geographical boundaries. Additionally, technology shapes cultural norms and values, impacting how individuals learn and engage with their social environment.

Resocialization

the process through which individuals undergo significant changes in beliefs, values, and behaviors, often due to major life transitions or shifts in social context. It typically occurs in total institutions (e.g., prisons, military) where individuals are stripped of their previous identities and taught new norms and roles. This process can lead to a profound transformation of the self, as individuals adapt to new social expectations and redefine their identities.

Deviant behavior

refers to actions that violate societal norms, values, or expectations, leading to social disapproval or sanctions. This can range from minor infractions, like skipping school, to serious crimes, such as theft or violence. The perception of deviance is influenced by cultural context, social norms, and responses from others, highlighting its subjective nature

Criminal Behavior

is defined as actions that violate laws established by a governing authority, leading to legal penalties or sanctions. It is influenced by individual choices, social environment, and structural factors like poverty or systemic inequality. Understanding criminal behavior requires examining the social context and interactions that shape individuals' decisions to engage in such activities.

Primary Deviance

Initial acts of rule-breaking that may not result in a person being labeled as deviant

Secondary Deviance

Occurs when an individual internalizes a deviant label and continues to engage in deviant behavior as a result

Social Deviance

Actions that violate societal norms but may not necessarily be illegal, such as unconventional dress or behavior.

Criminal Deviance

Behaviors that violate laws and are punishable by the legal system, such as theft or assault.

Violent Crimes

Offenses that involve force or threat of force, such as murder, assault, and robbery.

Property Crimes

Crimes that involve the theft or destruction of property, including burglary, larceny, and vandalism.

White-Collar Crimes

Non-violent crimes committed for financial gain, often in business or professional settings, such as fraud, embezzlement, and insider trading.

Cyber Crimes

Offenses that involve computers and networks, including hacking, identity theft, and online harassment.

Differential Association

a theory proposed by Edwin Sutherland, suggesting that criminal behavior is learned through interactions with close friends and family. It emphasizes that individuals learn values, techniques, and motives for criminal behavior from those they associate with, rather than being inherently predisposed to crime. The theory highlights the importance of social relationships in shaping an individual's likelihood of engaging in deviant behavior.

Subcultural Theory

examines how subcultures form within a larger society, often as a response to mainstream social norms and values. It focuses on the unique values, beliefs, and behaviors of these groups, which may differ significantly from those of the dominant culture. This theory helps in understanding identity, resistance, and social cohesion among subcultures.

Labelling Theory

posits that deviance arises from societal reactions and the labels assigned to individuals. When society perceives someone as deviant, the individual may internalize that label, potentially leading to a self-fulfilling prophecy. This theory emphasizes the role of societal perceptions in shaping individual identity and behavior, suggesting that being labeled as "deviant" can lead a person to adopt that identity.

Anomie Theory

developed by Émile Durkheim, refers to a state of normlessness or a breakdown of social norms, often occurring during periods of rapid social change or disintegration. Durkheim posited that when individuals feel disconnected from the shared values and regulations of society, they experience a sense of alienation, which can lead to deviant behavior. This theory highlights how the disruption of social structure and the weakening of societal norms can contribute to crime, deviance, and instability within society.

What is Merton's Strain Theory?

A theory that explains deviance as a result of the strain between culturally approved goals and unequal access to legitimate means of achieving them.

What are the five modes of adaptation in Merton's Strain Theory?

Conformity, Innovation, Ritualism, Retreatism, Rebellion.

What is the mode of adaptation called "Conformity" in Merton's Strain Theory?

Accepting both societal goals and legitimate means to achieve them.

What is the mode of adaptation called "Innovation" in Merton's Strain Theory?

Accepting societal goals but using unconventional or illegal means to achieve them.

What is the mode of adaptation called "Ritualism" in Merton's Strain Theory?

Rejecting societal goals but strictly adhering to legitimate means without seeking success.

What is the mode of adaptation called "Retreatism" in Merton's Strain Theory?

Rejecting both societal goals and means, often leading to withdrawal from society.

What is the mode of adaptation called "Rebellion" in Merton's Strain Theory?

Rejecting both societal goals and means and replacing them with new values and goals.