AP U.S. Government & Politics Key Concepts: Federalism, Democracy, and Political Processes

Federalists

Supporters of ratification of the Constitution and of a strong central government

Antifederalists

Opponents of ratification of the Constitution and of a strong central government, generally.

Separation of powers

Constitutional division of powers among the legislative, executive, and judicial branches, with the legislative branch making law, the executive applying and enforcing the law, and the judiciary interpreting the law.

Checks and balances

Constitutional grant of powers that enables each of the three branches of government to check some acts of the others and therefore ensure that no branch can dominate.

Divided government

Governance divided between the parties, especially when one holds the presidency and the other controls one or both houses of Congress.

Judicial review

The power of a court to refuse to enforce a law or a government regulation that in the opinion of the judges' conflicts with the U.S. Constitution or, in a state court, the state constitution.

Impeachment

Formal accusation by the lower house of legislature against a public official, the first step in removal from office.

Executive order

An informal power; directive issued by a president or governor that has the force of law; direct the bureaucracy.

Federalism

Constitutional arrangement in which power is distributed between a central government and subdivisional governments, called states in the United States. The national and the subdivisional governments both exercise direct authority over individuals.

Implied powers

Powers inferred from the expressed powers that allow Congress to carry out its functions.

Necessary and proper clause

Clause of the Constitution (Article 1, Section 8, Clause 3) setting forth the implied powers of Congress. It states that Congress, in addition to its express powers has the right to make all laws necessary and proper to carry out all powers the Constitution vests in the national government.

Commerce clause

The clause in the Constitution (Article 1, Section 8, Clause 1) that gives Congress the power to regulate all business activities that cross state lines or affect more than one state or other nations.

Concurrent powers

Powers that the Constitution gives to both the national and state governments, such as the power to levy taxes.

Linkage institutions

The means by which individuals can express preferences regarding the development of public policy.

Political culture

The widely shared beliefs, values, and norms about how citizens relate to governments and to one another.

Political ideology

A consistent pattern of beliefs about political values and the role of government.

Interest group

A collection of people who share a common interest or attitude and seek to influence government for specific ends. Interest groups usually work within the framework of government and try to achieve their goals through tactics such as lobbying.

Caucus

A meeting of local party members to choose party officials or candidates for public office and to decide the platform.

Open primary

An election in which any voter, regardless of party, may vote to narrow down candidates seeking a party nomination.

Closed primary

An election in which voters registered with that party's primary may vote to narrow down candidates seeking a party nomination.

Winner-take-all system (SMDP)

Election system in which the candidate with the most votes (plurality) wins.

Minor party/3rd party

A small political party that rises and falls with a charismatic candidate or, if composed of ideologies on the right or left, usually persists over time; also called a third party.

De-alignment

Weakening of partisan preferences that point to a rejection of both major parties and a rise in the number of independents.

Public opinion (polling)

The distribution of individual preferences or evaluations of a given issue, candidate, or institution within a specific population.

Political socialization

The process - most notably in families and schools - by which we develop our political attitudes, values, and beliefs.

Electoral college

Electoral system used in electing the president and vice president, in which voters vote for electors pledged to cast their ballots for party's candidates.

Reserved powers

Powers given to the states by the 10th amendment because they are not given to the national government.

Retrospective Voting

Voting to decide whether the party or candidate in power should be re-elected based on the recent past.

Rational Choice Voting

Voting based on what is perceived to be in the citizen's individual interest.

Prospective Voting

Voting based on predictions of how a party or candidate will perform in the future.

Trustee Model

A member of Congress who considers the views of their constituents and use their own judgment to decide how to vote.

Delegate Model

A member of Congress who always follows their constituents' voting preferences.

Politico

A member of Congress who acts as a delegate on issues that their constituents care about, and as a trustee on issues that their constituents don't care about.

Popular Sovereignty

The idea that the government's power comes from the will of the people or the 'consent of the governed.'

Limited Government

A political system in which there are certain restrictions placed on the government to protect individual rights and liberties.

Natural Rights

Described as the rights to one's own 'life, liberty, and property.' Thomas Jefferson, the main author of the Declaration of Independence, who described unalienable rights as 'life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness.' The government's main purpose is to protect these.

Republicanism

The Framers believed that the best form of government is one in which elected leaders represent the interests of the people.

Social Contract

Meaning that American society would agree to give up some freedoms to be protected by the federal government.

Pluralist Democracy

A model of democracy in which no one group dominates politics and organized groups compete with each other to influence policy.

Participatory Democracy

A model of democracy in which citizens have the power to decide directly on policy and politicians are responsible for implementing those policy decisions.

Elite Democracy

A model of democracy in which a small number of people, usually those who are wealthy and well-educated, influence political decision making.

Supremacy Clause

Establishes that the Constitution, federal laws made pursuant to it, and treaties made under its authority, constitute the 'supreme Law of the Land', and thus take priority over any conflicting state laws.

Block Grant

Federal grants issued to states or local governments to support broad programs; increases the power of the states.

Categorical Grant

Federal grants restricted to specific purposes; increases the power of the federal government.

Filibuster

A tactic used by senators to block a bill by continuing to hold the floor and speak, adhering to the Senate rule of unlimited debate.

Pork Barrel

The use of federal funding to finance localized projects, typically bringing money into a representative's district to please constituents and boost the representative's chances of winning reelection.

Judicial Activism

The belief that the role of a justice is to defend individual rights and liberties, even those not explicitly stated in the Constitution.

Judicial Restraint

The belief that the role of a justice is to defer decisions (and thus policymaking) to the elected branches of government and stay focused on a narrower interpretation of the Bill of Rights.

Redistricting

The process of adjusting electoral districts in the United States by state legislatures.

Reapportionment

The redistribution of seats in the U.S. House of Representatives based on changes in population.

Stare Decisis

The principle of making legal decisions based on past precedents. From the Latin for 'let the decision stand.'

Bully Pulpit

Notion of the presidency as a platform from which the president could promote an agenda directly to the public.

Advice and Consent

The authority of the senate to ratify treaties, confirm cabinet, and judicial appointments, a legal expression in the United States Constitution that allows the Senate to constrain the President's powers of appointment and treaty-making.

Free Exercise Clause

Which prevents the federal government from interfering with its citizens' religious beliefs and practices.

Establishment Clause

This prevents the federal government from supporting an official religion.

Due Process Clause

Provisions of the Fifth and Fourteenth Amendments that limit the power of the government to deny people 'life, liberty, or property' without fully respecting their legal rights and the correct legal procedure.

Equal Protection Clause

A provision of the Fourteenth Amendment that prohibits states from denying equal protection of the laws to their residents.

Selective Incorporation

The gradual process of applying amendments in the Bill of Rights to state and local governments by way of the 14th amendment.

Political Action Committees (PAC's)

An organization, usually representing an interest group or corporation, that raises money (limited) with the goal of supporting or defeating candidates, parties, or legislation.

Super PACs

Also called an 'independent expenditure-only committee,' may raise unlimited funds in support of a candidate or party if they do not coordinate in any way with the candidate or party or donate directly to the candidate.

Iron Triangle

A longstanding, mutually beneficial relationship between an interest group, congressional committee, and bureaucratic agency devoted to similar issues.

Horserace Journalism

Focuses on who is winning or ahead in the polls rather than on candidates' policy agenda or debates.

Gatekeeping

The media's role in setting the political agenda by drawing public and government attention to certain issues.

Watchdog

The role played by the national media in investigating political personalities and exposing scandals.

Candidate Centered

Political campaigns that focus on the candidates for office—their personalities and issues—rather than the parties they represent.