Art History Midterm

Warty Pig, IndonesiaThe Warty Pig is a prehistoric figurative artwork dating back to around 45,500 BCE. It is related to early human rituals and symbolizes themes such as fertility and hunting.

• Medium: Ochre pigment on limestone cave wall

• Date: c. 45,500 BCE

• Context: Considered the oldest known figurative art. Found in a remote cave in Indonesia.

• Period: Paleolithic (Prehistoric)

• Subject Matter: A warty pig, native to the region.

• Purpose: Possibly religious or magical, related to hunting practices or ancestral worship.

• Iconography: Animal form may symbolize fertility, hunting success, or spiritual guardianship.

• Comparison: Similar in function and style to Hall of Bulls, Lascaux and Megaloceros Gallery, Spain - early animal representations with symbolic meanings.

• Popular Interpretations: The hands depict the capturing and luring of the animal. Viewed as evidence of symbolic thinking and the development of cognitive capabilities.

• Significance: Challenges Eurocentric views of where early art emerged; shows global roots of human creativity.

Megaloceros Gallery, Chauvet Cave, France is a prehistoric cave painting known for its depictions of giant deer and sophisticated artistic techniques.

• Title: Megaloceros Gallery

• Medium: Paint on limestone

• Date: c. 30,000 – 28,000 BCE

• Context: One of the earliest known cave painting sites.

• Period: Upper Paleolithic

• Subject Matter: Giant deer (Megaloceros), among other animals.

• Purpose: Likely ritualistic, possibly tied to hunting magic or storytelling.

• Comparison: More sophisticated in shading and (dynamic) movement than Hall of Bulls, Lascaux.

• Interpretations: Possible connection to early mythologies.

• Significance: Demonstrates advanced artistic techniques for the time

Hall of Bulls, France is a notable prehistoric cave painting site famous for its vivid representations of bulls and other animals, demonstrating significant artistic and cultural development during the Upper Paleolithic period.

• Title: Hall of Bulls

• Medium: Paint on limestone

• Date: c. 15,000 BCE

• Context: Located in a complex network of cave systems.

• Period: Upper Paleolithic

• Subject Matter: Bulls, horses, and other animals in motion.

• Purpose: Possibly to ensure a successful hunt or spiritual guidance.

• Iconography: Emphasis on animal power and movement; may reflect clan identity.

• Comparison: One of the most famous examples of cave painting; related to Chauvet in terms of intent but more dynamic.

• Interpretations: Seen as early form of proto-cinema due to overlapping figures.

• Significance: Masterpiece of prehistoric art; reveals early narrative impulses.

Steppe Bison, Spain is a celebrated prehistoric art site featuring depictions of bison and advanced artistic techniques, significant for understanding Upper Paleolithic culture.

• Title: Steppe Bison

• Medium: Charcoal and ocher

• Date: c. 12,000–11,000 BCE

• Context: Discovered in a cave famous for its vivid ceiling paintings.

• Period: Upper Paleolithic

• Subject Matter: Bison

• Purpose: Possibly magical or ritual function.

• Iconography: Strength, fertility, and the hunt.

• Comparison: Similar style to Hall of Bulls, Lascaux.

• Interpretations: May reflect a complex belief system involving animal spirits.

• Significance: Showcases the continuity of animal worship/symbolism.

Löwenmensch (Lion-Human Figurine) is a prehistoric sculpture that depicts a humanoid figure with lion features, symbolizing potential religious or mythological significance.

• Title: Lion-Human Figurine

• Medium: Mammoth ivory

• Date: c. 40,000–35,000 BCE

• Context: Found in Hohlenstein-Stadel cave in Germany.

• Period: Paleolithic

• Subject Matter: Anthropomorphic figure combining human and lion traits.

• Purpose: Possibly religious or mythological.

• Iconography: Hybrid form = symbolic transformation or deity.

• Comparison: Precursor to later mythological hybrids like the sphinx.

• Interpretations: May represent a god, totem, or spiritual transformation.

• Significance: One of the oldest known sculptures; suggests complex belief systems.

Woman/ Venus of Willendorf

• Title: Woman (or Venus) of Willendorf

• Medium: Limestone with red ochre. Formed around the bellybutton.

• Date: c. 24,000–22,000 BCE

• Context: Found in Austria; often linked with fertility.

• Period: Paleolithic

• Subject Matter: Exaggerated female figure

• Purpose: Fertility symbol, charm, or ancestor figure.

• Iconography: Enlarged breasts and hips = fertility, nourishment, life.

• Interpretations: Feminist readings suggest it was a self-representation, looking from the top down.

• Significance: Icon of prehistoric art and fertility worship

Stonehenge, Wiltshire, England

• Architect: Unknown

• Title: Stonehenge

• Medium: Sandstone and bluestone. Post and Lintel

• Date: c. 2900–1500 BCE

• Context: Monumental stone circle aligned with solstices.

• Period: Neolithic to Bronze Age transition

• Commissioned by: Likely local religious/political elites.

• Subject Matter: Megalithic circle

• Purpose: Ceremonial, astronomical, possibly burial.

• Iconography: Solar alignment hints at cosmological understanding.

• Comparison: Related to Newgrange and other megalithic sites.

• Interpretations: May symbolize death/rebirth cycles or community gathering.

• Significance: Key example of prehistoric monumentality and engineering.

Newgrange Passage Grave, Ireland

• Architect: Unknown

• Title: Newgrange Passage Grave

• Medium: Stone with corbelled roof and spiral carvings

• Date: c. 3100 BCE

• Context: Neolithic tomb aligned with winter solstice sunrise.

• Period: Neolithic

• Subject Matter: Burial mound

• Purpose: Tomb, ceremonial site, solar observatory.

• Iconography: Spirals may signify life cycles, afterlife, or solar patterns.

• Comparison: Older than Stonehenge and the Pyramids; more enclosed design.

• Interpretations: Spiritual bridge between life and death.

• Significance: Advanced architecture and astronomical precision for its time.

Head of an Akkadian Ruler

• Artist: Unknown

• Title: Head of an Akkadian Ruler (believed to be Sargon of Akkad)

• Medium: Bronze

• Date: c. 2250–2220 BCE

• Context: From Nineveh; found deliberately mutilated.

• Period: Akkadian

• Commissioned by: Likely commissioned to glorify the king’s divine rule.

• Subject Matter: Idealized royal portrait

• Purpose: Demonstrated authority and divine kingship.

• Iconography: Stylized beard and symmetrical features = power and god-like status.

• Comparison: More naturalistic than earlier Sumerian votive figures.

• Interpretations: Political propaganda and a representation of order and authority.

• Significance: One of the earliest known life-size bronze sculptures; shows early royal portraiture and advanced metalworking.

Victory Stele of Naram-Sin

• Artist: Unknown

• Title: Victory Stele of Naram-Sin

• Medium: Limestone

• Date: c. 2254–2218 BCE

• Context: Celebrates Naram-Sin’s victory over the Lullubi people.

• Period: Akkadian

• Commissioned by: Naram-Sin himself or the Akkadian state.

• Subject Matter: Triumphant king marching up a mountain, trampling enemies.

• Purpose: Commemorates military victory and divine favor.

• Iconography: Diagonal composition, king wearing horned helmet = divinity.

• Comparison: Unusual for its dynamic diagonal layout; contrasts with horizontal registers of earlier steles.

• Interpretations: Elevation of king to godlike figure. Emphasis on Heirarchical scale

• Significance: Breaks from traditional narrative structure; early use of divine iconography for rulers

Seated Statue of Gudea

• Artist: Unknown

• Title: Seated Statue of Gudea

• Medium: Diorite

• Date: c. 2120 BCE

• Context: Gudea was ruler of Lagash; many statues of him exist.

• Period: Neo-Sumerian

• Commissioned by: Gudea

• Subject Matter: Ruler in a pose of prayer or offering

• Purpose: Placed in temples to show piety and power.

• Iconography: Inscribed robe with temple plans = dedication to the gods.

• Comparison: More pious than Akkadian king sculptures; emphasizes ruler’s devotion.

• Interpretations: Model of ideal ruler as servant of the gods.

• Significance: Reflects Neo-Sumerian ideology: ruler as intermediary between gods and people.

Law Stele of Hammurabi

• Title: Law Stele of Hammurabi

• Medium: Basalt

• Date: c. 1760 BCE

• Context: Found in Susa (modern-day Iran); inscribed with laws.

• Period: Babylonian

• Commissioned by: Hammurabi, King of Babylon

• Subject Matter: Hammurabi receiving laws from Shamash, god of justice

• Purpose: Public declaration of legal authority.

• Iconography: Divine authority (Shamash seated on throne) legitimizing earthly ruler.

• Comparison: Predecessor to all codified legal systems; blend of art and governance.

• Interpretations: Rule of law rooted in divine will; shaped ideas of justice and kingship.

• Significance: One of the oldest surviving law codes; early example of combining art with public governance.

Palette of Narmer

• Artist: Unknown

• Title: Palette of Narmer

• Medium: Graywacke (sandstone)

• Date: c. 3000 BCE

• Context: Ceremonial palette found at Hierakonpolis.

• Period: Early Dynastic Egypt

• Commissioned by: Likely created for ceremonial/religious use by the elite class.

• Subject Matter: Unification of Upper and Lower Egypt under King Narmer.

• Purpose: Ritual object, possibly used in temple ceremonies.

• Iconography: Narmer in smiting pose, intertwined beasts (serpopards), crowns of both regions = unity, divine kingship, power.

• Comparison: Proto-historical visual narrative; early use of registers.

• Interpretations: Celebrates divine kingship and legitimizes political control.

• Significance: One of the earliest historical documents in visual form; foundational to Egyptian visual language.

The Great Pyramid of Khufu

• Architect: Possibly Hemiunu (vizier)

• Title: Great Pyramid of Khufu

• Medium: Limestone and granite

• Date: c. 2589–2566 BCE

• Context: Part of the Giza pyramid complex.

• Period: Old Kingdom (4th Dynasty)

• Commissioned by: Pharaoh Khufu

• Subject Matter: Funerary monument

• Purpose: Tomb for the pharaoh, ensuring passage to afterlife.

• Iconography: Scale and shape = cosmic order, sun worship, eternal life.

• Comparison: Largest and most complex of the Giza pyramids.

• Interpretations: Symbol of divine kingship and architectural power.

• Significance: Architectural marvel; represents zenith of pyramid-building in Egypt.

Khafre Enthroned

• Artist: Unknown

• Title: Khafre Enthroned

• Medium: Gneiss

• Date: c. 2520–2494 BCE

• Context: Statue from valley temple near the Great Sphinx.

• Period: Old Kingdom

• Commissioned by: Pharaoh Khafre

• Subject Matter: Idealized portrait of the seated king

• Purpose: Ka statue to house the pharaoh’s soul.

• Iconography: Horus falcon behind head, papyrus and lotus on throne = divine protection and unity.

• Comparison: Similar to Menkaure and Queen in style and posture.

• Interpretations: Emphasizes eternal perfection and divine authority.

• Significance: Key example of Egyptian portraiture and divine kingship.

Menkaure and Queen

• Artist: Unknown

• Title: Menkaure and Queen

• Medium: Graywacke

• Date: c. 2490–2472 BCE

• Context: Found in Menkaure’s valley temple at Giza.

• Period: Old Kingdom

• Commissioned by: Pharaoh Menkaure

• Subject Matter: King and likely his wife or goddess Hathor.

• Purpose: Funerary statue, eternal representation for ka.

• Iconography: Formal posture, frontal stance = timeless presence.

• Comparison: Slightly more naturalistic than Khafre Enthroned.

• Interpretations: Balance of masculine power and feminine grace.

• Significance: Symbol of royal unity, idealized forms, gender balance in kingship.

Ti Watching a Hippopotamus Hunt

• Artist: Unknown

• Title: Ti Watching a Hippopotamus Hunt

• Medium: Painted limestone

• Date: c. 2494–2345 BCE

• Context: From tomb of Ti at Saqqara.

• Period: Old Kingdom

• Commissioned by: Ti, a government official

• Subject Matter: Ti overseeing symbolic hunt.

• Purpose: Ensure triumph over chaos in afterlife.

• Iconography: Size hierarchy (Ti larger), orderly boats = power and order.

• Comparison: Use of composite view and canon of proportions.

• Interpretations: Metaphor for defeating evil/chaos.

• Significance: Insight into non-royal funerary beliefs and social hierarchy.

Hatshepsut Kneeling

• Artist: Unknown

• Title: Hatshepsut Kneeling

• Medium: Red granite

• Date: c. 1473–1458 BCE

• Context: From her mortuary temple at Deir el-Bahri.

• Period: New Kingdom

• Commissioned by: Pharaoh Hatshepsut herself

• Subject Matter: Female pharaoh offering to gods.

• Purpose: Legitimize rule and show piety.

• Iconography: Depicted with male regalia = authority; kneeling = humility to gods.

• Comparison: Unique for gender representation in Egyptian art.

• Interpretations: Blends gender roles to assert power.

• Significance: Breaks gender norms in pharaonic representation.

Colossal Statue of Akhenaten

• Artist: Unknown

• Title: Colossal Statue of Akhenaten

• Medium: Sandstone

• Date: c. 1352–1336 BCE

• Context: From Akhenaten’s temple at Karnak.

• Period: New Kingdom (Amarna Period)

• Commissioned by: Akhenaten

• Subject Matter: Radical portrayal of pharaoh

• Purpose: Support monotheistic shift to Aten worship.

• Iconography: Feminine curves, elongated face = rejection of tradition.

• Comparison: Contrasts sharply with rigid Old Kingdom forms.

• Interpretations: Some say it reflects a new theology; others suggest illness or style shift.

• Significance: Visually embodies radical religious and cultural reform.

Stele of Akhenaten and His Family

• Artist: Unknown

• Title: Stele of Akhenaten and His Family

• Medium: Limestone

• Date: c. 1352–1336 BCE

• Context: Private domestic relief

• Period: Amarna Period

• Commissioned by: Akhenaten or royal family

• Subject Matter: Akhenaten, Nefertiti, and daughters under Aten

• Purpose: Express new intimate, domestic spirituality.

• Iconography: Sun disk (Aten) with rays ending in hands = divine blessing.

• Comparison: More personal and informal than traditional royal art.

• Interpretations: Highlights centrality of Aten and royal family in new religious order.

• Significance: Shows shift to monotheism and emphasis on familial piety.

The Lion Gate, Mycenae

• Architect: Unknown

• Title: Lion Gate

• Medium: Limestone

• Date: c. 1250 BCE

• Context: Main entrance to the citadel of Mycenae.

• Period: Mycenaean (Late Bronze Age)

• Commissioned by: Mycenaean rulers

• Subject Matter: Heraldic lions flanking a column.

• Purpose: Defensive entrance and royal propaganda.

• Iconography: Lions = strength, column = palace or divine power.

• Comparison: Among the earliest examples of monumental sculpture in Europe.

• Interpretations: Symbolizes authority, control, and divine protection of the city.

• Significance: Earliest example of monumental stone relief sculpture in mainland Greece.

Dipylon Krater

• Artist: Unknown

• Title: Dipylon Krater

• Medium: Ceramic

• Date: c. 740 BCE

• Context: Found at Dipylon cemetery, Athens.

• Period: Geometric Period

• Commissioned by: Athenian aristocracy

• Subject Matter: Funeral scene and mourning figures.

• Purpose: Grave marker and libation vessel.

• Iconography: Abstract figures, meander patterns, funerary motifs.

• Comparison: More narrative than earlier geometric works.

• Interpretations: Emphasis on collective mourning, status display.

• Significance: Shows development of narrative art and public commemoration.

Man and Centaur

• Artist: Unknown

• Title: Man and Centaur

• Medium: Bronze

• Date: c. 750 BCE

• Context: Found in Olympia.

• Period: Geometric Period

• Commissioned by: Unknown; possibly votive.

• Subject Matter: Human figure and mythological centaur.

• Purpose: Likely a votive offering.

• Iconography: Conflict between man and beast = human struggle with chaos.

• Comparison: Early integration of myth into sculpture.

• Interpretations: Prefigures Greek heroic narratives and duality themes.

• Significance: Shows myth entering artistic consciousness.

Temple of Hera I, Paestum

• Architect: Unknown

• Title: Temple of Hera I

• Medium: Limestone with plaster

• Date: c. 550–540 BCE

• Context: Located in Magna Graecia (southern Italy)

• Period: Archaic Greek

• Commissioned by: Local Greek settlers

• Subject Matter: Temple to Hera, goddess of marriage

• Purpose: Religious worship

• Iconography: Doric columns and central cella = divine order and protection.

• Comparison: Massive columns, close spacing typical of early Doric style.

• Interpretations: Reflects community wealth and divine patronage.

• Significance: Important example of early Doric temple architecture.

Exekias, Ajax and Achilles Playing a Game

• Artist: Exekias

• Title: Ajax and Achilles Playing a Game

• Medium: Ceramic amphora

• Date: c. 550–540 BCE

• Context: Found in Etruscan tombs; made in Athens.

• Period: Archaic Greek

• Commissioned by: Likely for export to elite buyers.

• Subject Matter: Ajax and Achilles in a moment of calm before battle.

• Purpose: Mixing wine; also aesthetic and symbolic.

• Iconography: Spear tips and gaze guide attention; shields symbolize war.

• Comparison: More narrative and psychological than earlier vases.

• Interpretations: Emphasizes humanity of heroes, foreshadows tragedy.

• Significance: Masterpiece of black-figure pottery and Greek storytelling.

Kritios Boy

• Artist: Unknown

• Title: Kritios Boy

• Medium: Marble

• Date: c. 480 BCE

• Context: Found on the Acropolis of Athens.

• Period: Early Classical (Severe Style)

• Commissioned by: Unknown; possibly public or temple context.

• Subject Matter: Idealized youth

• Purpose: Demonstrates naturalistic form and contrapposto.

• Iconography: Transition from Archaic stiffness to Classical realism.

• Comparison: Break from kouros type (e.g., New York Kouros).

• Interpretations: Early step toward individualized, lifelike statuary.

• Significance: Marks a turning point in sculptural realism.

Charioteer of Delphi

• Artist: Unknown

• Title: Charioteer of Delphi

• Medium: Bronze with silver details

• Date: c. 478–474 BCE

• Context: Dedicated at the Sanctuary of Apollo, Delphi.

• Period: Early Classical

• Commissioned by: Polyzalos of Gela (Sicilian ruler)

• Subject Matter: Victor in a chariot race

• Purpose: Commemorative, religious offering.

• Iconography: Calm dignity, self-restraint = Classical virtues.

• Comparison: Contrasts with dynamic works like Artemision Zeus.

• Interpretations: Represents ideal moral and physical form.

• Significance: Rare bronze original; embodies Classical restraint and poise.

Artemision Zeus (or Poseidon)

• Artist: Unknown

• Title: Artemision Zeus (or Poseidon)

• Medium: Bronze

• Date: c. 460 BCE

• Context: Found in sea off Cape Artemision.

• Period: Early Classical

• Commissioned by: Unknown

• Subject Matter: God (likely Zeus or Poseidon) hurling a weapon

• Purpose: Public display, religious reverence

• Iconography: Dynamic motion, divine authority.

• Comparison: Opposite of Kritios Boy in energy and scale.

• Interpretations: Expression of divine power in human form.

• Significance: Exemplifies balance of motion and stillness in Classical sculpture.

Kalikrates and Iktinos, Parthenon

• Architects: Kalikrates and Iktinos

• Title: Parthenon

• Medium: Marble

• Date: 447–432 BCE

• Context: Temple to Athena on Athenian Acropolis.

• Period: High Classical

• Commissioned by: Pericles, funded by Delian League

• Subject Matter: Athena, city of Athens, mythological scenes

• Purpose: Civic pride, religious worship, political dominance

• Iconography: Metopes, frieze, and pediments = mythology and historical identity

• Comparison: Culmination of Doric architecture, optical refinements.

• Interpretations: Political and religious symbol of Athenian greatness.

• Significance: Peak of Classical Greek architecture; synthesis of form, function, and ideology.

Kalikrates, Temple of Athena Nike

• Architect: Kalikrates

• Title: Temple of Athena Nike

• Medium: Marble

• Date: 421–415 BCE

• Context: On the Acropolis, overlooking entrance.

• Period: High Classical

• Commissioned by: Periclean Athens

• Subject Matter: Athena as bringer of victory.

• Purpose: Commemorate military success.

• Iconography: Ionic elegance; frieze shows battle scenes.

• Comparison: Smaller, more graceful than Parthenon.

• Interpretations: Celebrates civic and military identity.

• Significance: Blends religious reverence with political narrative.

Nike Adjusting Her Sandal

• Artist: Unknown

• Title: Nike Adjusting Her Sandal

• Medium: Marble

• Date: 407 BCE

• Context: From parapet of Temple of Athena Nike.

• Period: High Classical

• Commissioned by: Athenian city-state

• Subject Matter: Winged goddess in intimate moment.

• Purpose: Decorative relief; aesthetic and symbolic.

• Iconography: Wet drapery technique reveals form beneath clothing.

• Comparison: Humanized divine figure; more sensual than earlier representations.

• Interpretations: Shows Classical ideals of beauty, grace.

• Significance: Example of stylistic shift toward more natural and intimate depictions.

Polykleitos, Doryphoros (Spear Bearer)

• Artist: Polykleitos

• Title: Doryphoros (Roman copy of Greek original)

• Medium: Marble

• Date: c. 440 BCE

• Context: Originally bronze; Roman copy survives.

• Period: High Classical

• Commissioned by: Possibly for athletic or educational setting.

• Subject Matter: Ideal male athlete

• Purpose: Demonstration of "Canon" of proportions.

• Iconography: Contrapposto, balance, and symmetry.

• Comparison: Influential on later sculptures (e.g., Augustus of Prima Porta).

• Interpretations: Embodies Polykleitos’s theories of beauty and proportion.

• Significance: Model of ideal male form and Classical rationalism.

Epigonos, Ludovisi Gaul (Gaul Killing Himself and His Wife)

• Artist: Epigonos (attributed)

• Title: Ludovisi Gaul

• Medium: Marble (Roman copy of bronze original)

• Date: c. 230 BCE

• Context: Hellenistic sculpture commemorating Pergamene victory over Gauls.

• Period: Hellenistic

• Commissioned by: Attalid kings of Pergamon

• Subject Matter: Defeated warrior’s final act

• Purpose: Celebrate victory while honoring courage of the enemy.

• Iconography: Emotional realism, dynamic tension, pathos.

• Comparison: Contrasts with calm dignity of Classical works like Doryphoros.

• Interpretations: Noble death, tragic heroism.

• Significance: Exemplifies emotional power and dramatic style of Hellenistic art.