PSYC 1F90 (copy)

Winter Exam review

social psychology

study of how individuals think and behave in social situation

culture

an ongoing pattern or life, characterizing a society at given point in history

ingroup

a group with which a person identifies

outgroup

a group with which a person does not identify

group structure

the network of roles, communication pathways, and power in a group

group cohesiveness

the degree of attraction among group members or their commitment to remaining in the group

norm

a widely accepted (but often unspoken) standard of conduct for appropriate behaviour AND standard used to compare an individual's performance on a test with that of others

social role

expected behaviour patterns associated with particular social positions (such as daughter, worker, or student)

role conflict

trying to occupy two or more roles that make conflicting demands on behaviour

social status

the degree of prestige, admiration, and respect accorded to a member of a group

social power

the degree to which a group member can control, alter, or influence the behaviour of another group member

social cognition

the process of thinking about ourselves and others in a social context

social comparison

making judgements about ourselves through comparison with others

downward comparison

comparing yourself with a person who ranks lower than you on some dimension

upward comparison

comparing yourself with a person who ranks higher than you on some dimension

attribution

the act of assigning cause to behaviour

situational demands

unstated expectations that define desirable or appropriate behaviour in various setting and social situations

fundamental attribution error

tendency to attribute behaviour to internal causes without regard to situational influences

actor-observer bias

the tendency to attribute the behaviour of others to internal causes while attributing one's own behaviour to external causes (situations and circumstances)

self-handicapping

arranging to perform under conditions that usually impair performance, so as to have an excuse for a poor showing

attitude

positive or negative perception of people, objects, or issues

open-ended interview

an interview in which persons are allowed to freely state their veiws

social distance scale

a rating of the degree to which a person would be willing to have contact with a member of another group

attitude scale

a collection of attitudinal statements with which respondents indicate agreement or disagreement

reference group

any group that an individual uses as a standard for social comparison

cognitive dissonance

psychological state of having related ideas or perceptions that are inconsistent

social influence

changes in a person's behaviour induced by the presence or actions of others

social facilitation

tendency to perform better when in the presence of others

social interference

tendency to perform more poorly when in presence of others

mere pressure

the tendency for people to change their behaviour just because of the presence of other people

social loafing

exerting less effort when performing a specific task with a group than when alone

conformity

matching behaviour and appearance to perceived social norms

group sanctions

rewards and punishments (such as approval or disapproval) administered by groups to enforce conformity among members

group think

flawed decision-making in which a collection of individuals favours conformity over critical analysis

compliance

bending to the requests of a person who has little or no authority or other form of social power

persuasion

a deliberate attempt to change beliefs or behaviour with information and arguments

foot-in-the-door effect

the tendency for a person who has first complied with a small request to be more likely later to fulfill a larger request

door-in-the-face effect

the tendency for a person who has refused a major request to subsequently be more likely to comply with a minor request

lowball technique

a strategy in which commitment is gained first to reasonable or desirable terms, which are then make less reasonable or desirable

obediance

compliance with a request from an authority figure

coercion

being forced to change your beliefs or your behaviour against your will

brainwashing

engineered or forced attitude change involving a captive audience

cult

a group that professes great devotion to some person and follows that person almost without question; members are typically victimized by their leaders by their leaders in various ways

self-assertion

a direct, honest expression of feelings and desires

need to affiliate

the desire to associate with other people

interpersonal attraction

social attraction to another person

reciprocity

a mutual exchange of feelings, thoughts, or things between people

self-disclosure

the process of revealing private thoughts, feelings, and one's personal history to others

social exchange

any exchange between two people of attention, information, affection, favours, or the like

social exchange theory

a theory stating that rewards must exceed costs for relationships to endure

comparison level

a personal standard used to evaluate rewards and costs in a social exchange

intimacy

feelings of connectedness and affection for another person

passion

deep emotional and/or sexual feelings for another person

commitment

the determination to stay in a long-term relationship with another person

romantic love

love that is associated with high levels of interpersonal attraction, heightened arousal, mutual absorption, and sexual desire

companionate love

a form of love characterized by intimacy and commitment, but not passion

fatuous love

love characterized by passion and commitment, but not intimacy

consummate love

a form of love characterized by intimacy, passion, and commitment

evolutionary psychology

the study of the evolutionary origins of human behaviour patterns

prosocial behaviour

any behaviour that as a positive impact on other people

altruism

a specific type of prosocial behaviour motivated primarily by improving the circumstances of others

empathy

state in which people, when faced with someone who is suffering, experience a feeling state that parallels that of the person in distress

bystander effect (bystander apathy)

the unwillingness of bystanders to offer help during emergencies or to become involved in others' problems

diffusion of responsibility

spreading the responsibility to act among several people; reduces the likelihood that help will be given to a person in need

antisocial behaviour

any behaviour that has a negative impact on other people

aggression

any action carried out with the intention of harming another person

bullying

the deliberate and repeated use of aggression (whether verbal or physical, direct or indirect) as a tactic for dealing with everyday situations

instinct

innate impulse that directs or motivates behaviour

frustration-aggression hypothesis

states that frustration tends to lead to aggression

social learning theory

a theory that combines learning principles with cognitive processes, socialization, and modelling, to explain behaviour, including personality

prejudice

positive or negative attitude toward an entire group of people

social stereotypes

oversimplified images of the traits of individuals who belong to a particular social group

discrimination (in social behaviour)

unfair actions based on stereotyping and prejudice

microaggressions

subtle acts of discrimination that may not be intended to hurt the victim but rather reflect a lack of awareness or sensitivity

racism

stereotyping, prejudice, and discrimination directed against someone based solely on their race

sexism

stereotyping, prejudice, and discrimination directed against someone based solely on their gender

ageism

stereotyping, prejudice, and discrimination directed against someone based solely on their age

heterosexism

stereotyping, prejudice, and discrimination directed against someone based solely on the belief that heterosexuality is better or more natural than homosexuality

enthocentrism

placing one's own group or race at the center- that is, tending to reject all other groups but one's own

explicit prejudice

prejudice that is conscious and clearly and publicly expressed

implicit prejudice

unconscious prejudiced thoughts and feelings about members of other groups

scapegoating

blaming a person or a group for the actions of others or for conditions not of their making

displaced aggression

redirecting aggression to a target other than the actual source of one's frustration

status inequalities

differences in the power, prestige, or privileges of two or more people or groups

authoritarian personality

a personality pattern characterized by rigidity, inhibition, prejudice, and an excessive concern with power, authority, and obedience

dogmatism

an unwarranted positiveness or certainty in matters of belief or opinion

dehumanization

beliefs that outgroups are less human and deserve the discrimination that they are subject to

self-stereotyping

the tendency to apply social stereotypes to one's self

stereotype threat

the anxiety caused by the fear of being judged in terms of a stereotype

equal-status contact

social interaction that occurs on an equal footing, without obvious differences in power or status

superordinate goal

a goal that exceeds or overrides all others; a goal that renders other goals relatively less important

individuating information

information that helps define a person as an individual, rather than as a member of a group or social category

just-world beliefs

beliefs that people generally get what they deserve

self-fulfilling prophecy

an expectation that prompts people to act in ways that make expectation come true

social competition

rivalry among groups, each of which regards itself as superior to others

motivation

a process that arouses, maintains, and guides behaviour toward a goal

need

an internal deficiency that may energize behaviour

drive

a state of bodily tension, such as hunger or thirst, that arises from an unmet need

response

any action, glandular activity, or other identifiable behaviour

goal

the target or objective of motivated behaviour