English Grammar 3: The complex sentence

Intransitive verbs

• no objects required

• existential ‘to be’ after ‘there’

Copula verbs

• links a subject (NP) with subject complement

• verbs like: to be, to turn, etc.

• verbs of the senses

• subject complement can take the form of: NP, AdvP, PrepP, or AdjP

Cannot be passivised, if yes then it’s a monotransitive verb. Change the subject complement with AdjP, if it works it is a copula.

Monotransitive verbs

• required a single NP (D.O)

• verbs like: look up, write down are 2-word monotr.

Ditransitive verbs

• requires 2 NPs, D.O and I.O

• I.O ask: to whom/for whom

• verb can also have prepositional I.O (only ‘for’ and ‘to’)

Complex Transitive verbs

• takes 2 complements: D.O NP and Direct object complement or O.C

• the o.c is the attribute of the D.O. It adds essential and additional information to the object

• if the o.c. is omitted then it becomes a monotr. verb

Secondary Transitive verbs

• have a fixed preposition

• and only has a P.O (prepositional object/direct object with a fixed preposition)

• e.g. You can ask for help (ask for → verb with fixed prep. and help the P.O)

Intransitive prepositional verb

• has a fixed preposition and a P.O

• (like the sectr. verb) but cannot be passivised

Transitive verbs with a prepositional complement

• has a fixed prep. + D.O/P.O + Prep. complement

• has a fixed preposition

Intransitive verb with obligatory adverbial

• PrepP functioning as adverbials

Prepositional P. as complements

• appear with tr./intr. prepositional verbs

Adverbial complements

• often filled by: NP, PrepP, AdvP, and clauses

• Can be in 3 different positions (front, middle, and end)

• place, distance, duration, time

• manner adv, measure, frequency, instrumental, accompaniment, temporal, locative

• abstract qualities: purpose, cause, condition, concession, etc.

• discourse markers: Besides, However, etc.

• sentence connectors: naturally, etc.

Clausal complements

• to-inf.

• bare inf.

• gerund

• ing- participle

• ed- participle

• that clause compl

• indirect question/interrogative clause compl

• wh-inf. compl.

• clausal Pro Forms: so, not, to

Adverbial clauses

• Time: when, after, before, now, later, untill, since, as soon/long as, once, directly/immediately, etc.

• Place: where, wherever

• Condition: if, if not, unless, except if, supposing that, etc.

• Concession and Contrast: although, yet, while, though, even though, whereas, etc.

• Reason and Cause: because, as, since, now that, etc.

• Purpose: in order to, so as to, so that, so, in case, etc.

• Circumstance: with + to-inf.

• Manner: as, like, as if, etc.

• Comparison: as … as, so … as, than, etc.

• Proportion and Extent: as, so, the…the, etc.

• Explanation: because, in that, etc.

• Preference: rather … that, sooner … that, etc.

Subclauses

• Relative clauses (can be that-clauses and wh-clauses)

• That-clause

• If-clause

• to-inf.

• bare inf.

• gerund

• ing- participle

• ed- participle

• NP clauses (can be all the above)

• Adverbial clauses

Non-adverbial suboridnation

• who, whose, which, that, verb: ed-, ing-, inf., gerund

• mention non-restrictive vs restrictive

• appositive NP → renaming or describing the NP, e.g., ‘a fierce predator, a lion hunts…’

Syntax trees

NP → (Det)+(adv)+(adj)+N+(PrepP)+(CompP)

VP → V+(NP)+(PrepP)+(AdvP). OR Vlinking (NP)+(Adj)

AdjP → Adj +(Adv deg)+(PrepP)+(CompP). OR Adj + PrepP.

AdvP → (Adv deg)+Adv+(CompP)

PrepP → Prep + NP

Det = article, demonstrative, quantifier (like many, etc.), possessive NP

A few deletions possible

• gerund/to-inf. → equi-NP deletion

• to-inf → prep deletion

• ed-pat. → to be deletion (like I want this played)

Conjuction coordinators

and, but, or, nor, for, so, yet

Subordinators

because, although, if, when, where, that, etc.