US history since 1877

Containment

central U.S. foreign policy strategy during the Cold War, developed primarily by diplomat George F. Kennan in 1946–47. It argued that the Soviet Union was inherently expansionist and that the United States must prevent the spread of communism through political, economic, and military means. Containment shaped alliances such as NATO, influenced foreign aid programs like the Marshall Plan, and justified U.S. involvement in conflicts around the world.
Historical Significance: It guided nearly every major U.S. foreign policy action from the late 1940s to the early 1990s, including the Korean War, Vietnam War, and numerous anti-communist interventions.

U2 Spy Plane Incident

occurred in May 1960 when a U.S. U-2 high-altitude spy plane piloted by Francis Gary Powers was shot down over the Soviet Union while gathering intelligence on Soviet missile sites. The U.S. initially denied the mission’s purpose, but the Soviets revealed they had captured Powers and recovered aircraft parts. Historical Significance: The incident embarrassed the Eisenhower administration, ruined a major diplomatic summit, and deepened Cold War distrust.

McCarthyism

early-1950s movement led by Senator Joseph McCarthy to aggressively investigate and accuse individuals—especially government workers, entertainers, and professors—of communist ties. These accusations were often unsupported and ruined many careers.
Historical Significance: It represents an era of political repression and fear-mongering that threatened civil liberties and set a precedent for government overreach.

Brown v. Board of Education

A 1954 Supreme Court case in which the NAACP successfully argued that segregated public schools violated the 14th Amendment’s Equal Protection Clause. The Court unanimously ruled that “separate educational facilities are inherently unequal,” overturning the 1896 Plessy v. Ferguson decision. Historical Significance: It forced desegregation of schools and energized the Civil Rights Movement.

Montgomery Bus Boycott

A year-long protest from 1955–56 in Montgomery, Alabama, triggered by Rosa Parks’ refusal to surrender her bus seat to a white passenger. Organized by local activists and led by Martin Luther King Jr., the boycott aimed to end segregated bus seating. Historical Significance: It demonstrated the power of organized nonviolent protest and launched MLK’s national leadership.

Rob Williams and the Black Guard

Robert F. Williams was a civil rights leader in Monroe, North Carolina who rejected strict nonviolence. He founded the Black Guard, an armed self-defense group formed to protect Black families from KKK attacks and police violence.
Historical Significance: Williams influenced later Black Power and self-defense movements, showing alternative approaches within civil rights activism.

Cuban Missile Crisis

Definition: A 13-day Cold War confrontation in October 1962 after U.S. reconnaissance discovered Soviet nuclear missiles in Cuba. President John F. Kennedy ordered a naval blockade and demanded missile removal, while the world watched the threat of nuclear war. Historical Significance: It was the closest the world ever came to nuclear conflict and led to improved communication and arms control agreements.

Voting Rights Act of 1965

Federal legislation banning racial discrimination in voting by targeting poll taxes, literacy tests, and discriminatory registration practices. It authorized federal examiners to monitor elections in areas with histories of voter suppression.
Historical Significance: It transformed American democracy by enabling millions of Black voters to participate freely.

Gulf of Tonkin Resolution

A 1964 congressional authorization allowing President Johnson to “take all necessary measures” in Vietnam after reported attacks on U.S. naval vessels. Though evidence later proved unclear, it gave the president broad war powers.
Historical Significance: It allowed rapid U.S. military escalation without a formal declaration of war.

Griswold v. Connecticut

Definition: A 1965 Supreme Court case overturning a Connecticut law banning contraceptive use by married couples. The Court ruled that the Constitution implicitly protects a “right to privacy” in marital and personal decisions. Historical Significance: It laid the legal foundation for later reproductive rights cases, including Roe v. Wade.

United Farm Workers (UFW)

Definition: A labor union founded in 1962 by César Chávez, Dolores Huerta, and others to advocate for farmworkers’ rights. The UFW organized strikes, boycotts, and marches to improve wages and working conditions. Historical Significance: The union brought national attention to agricultural labor abuses and achieved landmark labor protections.

The Mulford Act

Definition: A 1967 California law that prohibited carrying loaded firearms in public. The law specifically targeted the Black Panther Party, whose members had been openly carrying weapons to monitor police. Historical Significance: It signaled government backlash against Black radical activism and reshaped gun laws

AIM (American Indian Movement)

Founded in 1968 in Minneapolis, AIM was created to address police brutality, treaty violations, and systemic injustices facing Native Americans. AIM organized protests, occupations, and legal battles. Historical Significance: It reenergized Native activism and led to increased federal recognition of Native rights.

COINTELPRO

A secret FBI program from 1956–1971 designed to spy on, infiltrate, discredit, and disrupt political groups including civil rights activists, antiwar leaders, and Black Power organizations. Tactics included surveillance, misinformation, and illegal break-ins. Historical Significance: Its exposure revealed widespread government abuses and led to reforms in intelligence oversight.

Kerner Commission

A committee created by President Lyndon Johnson in 1967 to examine the causes of racial unrest in American cities. The commission interviewed residents, studied conditions, and analyzed systemic inequality. Historical Significance: Its report concluded that institutional racism and segregation were major causes, sparking national debate.

1968

A historically dramatic year marked by the Tet Offensive in Vietnam, the assassinations of Martin Luther King Jr. and Robert F. Kennedy, urban uprisings, and violent clashes at the Democratic National Convention. Historical Significance: It represented a turning point in political trust, social movements, and national polarization.

Vietnam Vets Against the War

An antiwar group formed in 1967 by veterans who had served in Vietnam. Members testified before Congress, marched, and staged public demonstrations to expose the war’s brutality. Historical Significance: Their credibility as veterans helped turn public opinion against the war.

Vietnamization

President Nixon’s strategy to reduce U.S. involvement in Vietnam by training and equipping South Vietnamese forces to take over combat operations while withdrawing American troops. Historical Significance: It reduced U.S. casualties but ultimately did not prevent the fall of South Vietnam.

Five Policemen Concept

A geopolitical idea proposed after WWII envisioning five major powers—United States, Soviet Union, China, Britain, and France—as global enforcers of peace and stability. These nations later became permanent members of the UN Security Council. Historical Significance: It shaped the structure of the United Nations and the postwar global order.

Liberal Feminism

A branch of feminism focused on achieving gender equality through legal and political reforms, including equal pay, reproductive rights, education access, and workplace protections. It argues that discrimination—not inherent differences—creates inequality. Historical Significance: It guided major legislative victories such as Title IX and the Equal Pay Act.

Watergate

A major political scandal beginning with a 1972 break-in at the Democratic National Committee headquarters by operatives connected to President Nixon’s reelection campaign. Nixon’s attempts to obstruct the investigation led to impeachment proceedings. Historical Significance: It caused Nixon’s resignation and led to reforms expanding government transparency.

Iran Hostage Crisis

 After the 1979 Iranian Revolution, militants seized the U.S. embassy in Tehran and detained 52 American diplomats and citizens for 444 days. The crisis became a major international standoff. Historical Significance: It reshaped U.S.–Iranian relations and influenced American politics and foreign policy.

Trickle-Down Economics

 An economic theory arguing that policies benefiting businesses and the wealthy—such as tax cuts and deregulation—will ultimately benefit everyone as prosperity “trickles down” through the economy. Historical Significance: It guided Reagan-era economics and remains debated for its impact on inequality.

Iran-Contra Affair

A secret Reagan administration operation where officials sold weapons to Iran (despite an arms embargo) and used the profits to fund anti-communist Contra rebels in Nicaragua, violating congressional bans. Historical Significance: It led to investigations, convictions of officials, and questions about presidential authority.

Gulf War of 1991

A U.S.-led coalition war to remove Iraqi forces from Kuwait after Saddam Hussein’s 1990 invasion. The conflict used rapid, high-tech military strategies. Historical Significance: It highlighted U.S. global military power and reshaped Middle Eastern politics.

Don’t Ask, Don’t Tell

A 1993 military policy stating that gay, lesbian, and bisexual service members could serve only if they concealed their sexual orientation, and the military would not investigate without cause. Historical Significance: It institutionalized discrimination until its repeal in 2011.

Ownership Society

A concept promoted by President George W. Bush encouraging individuals to take personal responsibility by owning homes, retirement accounts, education savings, and healthcare accounts rather than relying on government programs. Historical Significance: It shaped debates on privatization and social policy.

The Patriot Act

 A law passed shortly after 9/11 expanding government powers for surveillance, intelligence sharing, and counterterrorism. It allowed roving wiretaps, business record seizures, and secret court orders. Historical Significance: It transformed national security practices and raised concerns about privacy rights.

Telecommunications Act of 1996

A sweeping overhaul of U.S. communication laws that reduced regulation in broadcasting, cable, telephone, and internet industries. It encouraged competition but also allowed mergers and media consolidation. Historical Significance: It shaped the modern media landscape and expanded corporate control of communications.

Citizens United v. Federal Election Commission (2010)

Supreme Court case where a nonprofit challenged federal limits on corporate-funded political ads. The Court ruled that restricting independent political spending by corporations and unions violated the First Amendment because political spending counts as protected speech. The ruling eliminated key campaign finance restrictions and allowed unlimited outside spending through super PACs. It greatly increased the role of wealthy donors and organizations in elections and changed how modern political campaigns are funded.