Bio/Biochem

Frontal Lobe

• executive fxns

  • problem solve

  • concentration + reasoning

  • planning + organization

  • personality, behavior, mood, emotions

  • Broca’s Area

  • motor area

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Broca’s Area

speech production

motor area

• frontal lobe

• primary motor cortex

• voluntary mvmt

temporal lobe

• hearing

• sorting verbal + visual mems

• short + long term mem

• balance

• understand language

• wernicke’s area

Wernicke’s area

language comprehension

Equilibrium

balance, located in ear

Parietal lobe

• sensory area

• Calculations

• Attention

• Sensation

• Perception (body awareness)

occipital lobe

• vision

  • visual system

  • visual info

• processes visuals + perceptions of shapes + sizes

Cerebellum

• mini brain

• balance

• rhythm

• proprioception

• posture

Glycolysis

• cytoplasm

• products:

  • 2 pyruvaye

  • 2 ATP

  • 2 NADH

  • 0 FADH2

Glycolysis steps 1 + 2

1. glucose —hexokinase→ glucose-6-phosphate

   1. ATP → ADP

2. G6P ←phosphoglucose isomerase→ fructose-6-phosphate

Glycolysis step 3

• RATE LIMITING STEP

3. fructose-6-phosphate ←phosphofructokinase→ fructose-1,6-bisphosphate

   1. ATP → ADP

Glycolysis steps 4 + 5

4. fructose-1,6-bisphosphate ←aldolase→ glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate

5. F-1,6-P ←aldolase→ DHAP ← triose phosphate isomerase→ 2 G3P

Glycolysis steps 6 + 7

6. (2x) G3P ←G3P dehydrogenase→ 1,3-bisphosphoglycerate

   1. NADH → NADH + H⁺

   2. P_i in

7. (2x) 1,3-bisphosphoglycerate ←phosphoglycerate kinase→ 3-phosphoglycerate

Glycolysis steps 8 + 9

8. (2x) 3-phosphoglycerate ←phosphoglycerate mutase→ 2-phosphoglycerate

9. (2x) 2-phosphoglycerate ←enolase→ phosphoenolpyruvate

Glycolysis step 10

10. (2x) phosphoenolpyruvate ←pyruvate kinase→ pyruvate

How many steps in GNG is diff from glycolysis?

3

What are the steps that are different in gluconeogenesis?

1. (2x) pyruvate ←pyruvate carboxylase→ oxaloacetate ←PEP carboxylase— PEP

2. fructose-1,6-bisphosphate ←F-1,6-bisphosphatase— F-6P

3. G6P ←glucose-6-phosphatase— glucose (product)

What is the mnemonic for TCA cycle?

Can I Keep Selling Sex For Money Officer

TCA cycle steps 1-3

1. citrate —aconitase→ isocitrate

2. isocitrate —isocitrate DH→ α-ketoglutarate

   1. NAD⁺ → NADH + H⁺

   2. CO₂ out

3. α-ketoglutarate —α-ketoglutarate DH→ succinyl-CoA

   1. NAD⁺ → NADH + H⁺

   2. CO₂ out

   3. CoA in

TCA cycle steps 4-6

4. succinyl CoA —succinyl-CoA synthetase→ succinate

   1. GDP → GTP

   2. P_i in

   3. CoA out

5. succinate —succinate DH→ fumarate

   1. FAD → FADH2

6. fumarate —fumarase→ malate

TCA cycle steps 7-8

7. malate —malate DH→ oxaloacetate

   1. NAD⁺ → NADH + H⁺

8. oxaloacetate —citrate synthase→ citrate

   1. CoA out

products of TCA cycle per glucose

• 4CO₂

• 2 ATP

• 6 NADH

• 2 FADH2

pyruvate oxidation/decarboxylation

2 pyruvate → 2 Acetyl-CoA

• CO2 out

• CoA-SH in

• NAD → NADH + H

• reward processing

• pleasures + addictions

• mvmts + motivations

• attention, mem, learning

• related to Parkinson’s anxiety, etc.

dopamine

• feel-good chem

• improve mood + reduce pain

• improve self-esteem

• reduce anxiety, stress, sadness

• increased by meditation + exercise

endorphins

• enhance well-being + happiness

• long term mem

• aids sleep cycle + digestion

• prevent depresion

• repair wounds

serotonin

• main inhibitory NT

• produce calming effect

• improve mem + cognitive fxns

• protect neurons from damage

• long lasting pain relief

GABA

• fight-or-flight

• increase alertness + attention

• mobilize brain + body for action

• increase blood flow in body

• block chronic pain

Noradrenaline (norepinephrine)

• fight-or-flight

• released in times of stress

• chronic stress

• increases HR

• meditation + exercise reduce it

adrenaline (epinephrine)

• main excitatory NT

• learning, mem, brain health

• excessive amts linked w diseases

• too little is harmful

• avoid excessive MSG

glutamate

• rest-and-digest

• attention, arousal, awakening

• stim of muscles

• learning, mem, neuroplastcicity

• HR control

• promotes REM sleep

acetylcholine (Ach)

TCA cycle location

mitochondrial matrix

ETC location

mitochondrial membrane

ETC complex I

• NADH DH

• NADH(from TCA) → NAD⁺

• H⁺ pumped from matrix to intermembrane space

• allow e- to move thru

ETC Complex II

• succinate DH

• FADH₂ (from TCA) → FAD

• e- from Complex I passes thru

ETC complex III

• ubiquinol cytochrome C oxidoreductase

• e- accepted by O₂

• forms H₂O in mito matrix

• H⁺ pumped from matrix to intermembrane space

ETC complex IV

• cytochrome C oxidase

• H⁺ pumped from matrix to intermembrane space

ETC complex V

• ATP synthase

• H⁺ from IMS travels thru complex + into matrix

• causes stalk to rotate

• produces enough energy for ADP→ATP

ATP/NADH and ATP/FADH₂

• 1 NADH → 10 H⁺ pumped → 2.5 ATP

• 1 FADH₂ → 6 H⁺ pumped → 1.5 ATP

*4H⁺ = 1 ATP

products of ETC

• 30-32 ATP

• 6 H₂O

2 types of fermentation

• lactic acid

• alcohol

lactic acid fermentation

1. Glycolysis: glucose → 2 pyruvate

   1. 2 NADH + 2 ATP

2. 2 pyruvate → 2 lactate

   1. 2 NAD⁺

alcohol fermentation

1. glycolysis: glucose → 2 pyruvate

   1. 2 NADH + 2 ATP

2. 2 pyruvate → 2 acetaldehyde

   1. CO₂ out

3. 2 acetaldehyde → 2 ethanol

   1. 2 NADH → 2 NAD⁺

glycogenesis location

liver + skeletal muscle

glycogenesis steps 1-2

1. glucose ←hexokinase/glucokinase (liver)→ G6P ←phosphoglucomutase→ G1P

2. G1P ←UDP-glucose phosphorylase→ UDP glucose

   1. UTP → PPi

glycogenesis steps 3-4

3. UDP-glucose → glycogen

   1. glycogen synthase (1-4)

   2. branching enzyme

   3. insulin stims glycogen synthesis

4. glycogen → G1P

   1. glycogen phosphorylase breaks (1-4)

   2. debranching enzyme breaks (1-6)

   3. glucagon/epi stim breakdown of glycogen

β-oxidation location

mitochondrial matrix

β-oxidation steps 1-2

1. fatty acyl-CoA → trans-Δ²-enoyl-CoA

   1. acyl-CoA dehydrogenase

   2. FAD → FADH₂

2. trans-Δ²-enoyl-CoA → 3-L-hydroxyacyl-CoA

   1. enoyl-CoA hydratase

   2. water in

β-oxidation steps 3-4

3. 3-L-hydroxyacyl-CoA → β-ketoacyl-CoA

   1. 3-L-hydroxyacyl-CoA DH

   2. NAD → NADH + H

4. β-ketoacyl-CoA → fatty acyl-CoA + acetyl-CoA

   1. β-ketothiolase

   2. HSCoA in

ketogenesis location

mitochondrial matrix of hepatocytes

ketogenesis steps 1-2

1. 2 acetyl-CoA ← → acetoacetyl-CoA

   1. thiolase

   2. CoA-SH out

2. acetoacyl-CoA ← → β-hydroxy-β-methylglutaryl-CoA (HMG-CoA)

   1. HMG-CoA synthase

   2. acetyl-CoA → CoA-SH

ketogenesis steps 3-4

3. HMG-CoA ← → acetoacetate

   1. HMG-lyase

   2. acetyl-CoA out

4. acetoacetate ← → D-β-hydroxybutyrate

   1. D-β-hydroxybutyrate DH

   2. NADH → NAD

      -OR-

   acetoacetate → acetone

   1. non-enzymatic decarboxylation

   2. CO₂ out

pentose phosphate pathway (ppp) location

cytosol

ppp steps 1-3

1. (glycolysis) → G6P

2. G6P → 6-phosphogluconate

   1. G6P-DH

   2. NADPH → NADPH

3. 6-phosphogluconate → ribulose

   1. NADP → NADPH

   2. CO₂ out

ppp steps 4-6a

4. ribulose → ribose 5-P (5C)

5. ribose 5-P (5C)→ sedoheptulose 7-P (7C)

   1. transketolase

6. sedoheptulose 7-P → fructose 6-P

   1. transaldolase

ppp steps 4-6b

4. ribulose → xylulose 5-P (5C)

5. xylulose 5-P → G3P

   1. transketolase

6. G3P → erythrose 4-P (4C)

   1. transaldolase

7. xylulose 5-P OR erythrose 4-P ← → F6P OR G3P

   1. transketolase

cardiovascular system function

• delivery system

  • nutrients oxygen, hormones, + cells

• transport waste product

  • CO2, urea, ammonia, etc.

interconnectedness of cardiovascular system

• endocrine system: transport hormones

• respiratory system: gas exchange

• renal system: waste excretion

4 chambers of cardiovascular system

1. R. Atrium

2. R. Ventricle

3. L. Atrium

4. L. Ventricle

2 atrioventricular valves

1. tricuspid: separates RA + RV

2. bicuspid (mitral): separates LA + LV

interventricular septum (heart)

separates right + left

arteries vs veins

• arteries: carry oxygenated blood AWAY from heart

• veins: carries deoxygenated blood TO heart

Blood flow

vena cava → RA → tricuspid valve → RV → pulm semilunar valve → pulm. arteries → lungs → pulm. veins → LA → bicuspid valve → LV → aortic semilunar valve → aorta → body

Blood composition + character

• connective tissue

• liquid + cellular

  • liquid = plasma

    • carries ions, hormones, + clotting factors

    • 90% water

    • bicarbonate buffer system (HCO₃^- + H⁺)

  • cellular

    • erythrocytes: deliver O₂

    • leukocytes: immune cells

control of cardiovascular system

1. nervous system

   1. parasympathetic → vasodilation → ↓BP

   2. sympathetic → vasoconstriction → ↑BP

2. endocrine system

   1. ↑aldosterone → ↑Na⁺ + H₂O reabsorption → ↑blood vol → ↑BP

digestive system anatomy

1. mouth

2. esophagus

3. stomach

4. small intestine

5. large intestine

6. anus + rectum

mouth fxn in digestive system

• mechanical digestion (i.e. chewing)

• chemical digestion

  • saliva

    • salivary amylase

    • lingual lipase

    • lysozymes

esophagus fxn in digestive system

• esophageal sphincter

  • separates mouth + esophagus

• peristalsis

stomach fxn in digestive system

• contract/relax to mix food + move it down

• enzymes + acids to breakdown food

small intestine fxn in digestive system

• duodenum, jejunum, ileum

• digestion + absorption

• villi/microvilli to ↑ surface area for digestion/absorption

large intestine fxn in digestive system

• H₂O storage

• microbiome → produce vit K

anus + rectum fxn in digestive system

• stores feces

• anus sphincter: separates rectum + anus

digestive system accessory organs

1. liver

2. gallbladder

3. pancreas

liver + gallbladder in digestion

• liver produces bile

• gallbladder stores bile

pancreas in digestion

chem digestion in SI via enzymes

1. pancreatic amylase

2. pancreatic lipase

3. nuclease

4. chymotrypsinogen

5. carboxypeptide

6. elastase

7. trypsinogen

Steps of digestion

1. mechanical digestion

   1. chewing, churning, mixing of food

2. chemical digestion

   1. hydrolysis + enzymes

hormonal control of digestion

1. gastrin

2. secretin

3. cholecystokinin (CCK)

4. somatostatin

gastrin

• released rom G cells

• responds to distention of stomach, AA, + peptides

• signals release of more HCl

• chief + parietal cells → ↑HCl + pepsinogen → ↑acidic digestion

secretin

• ↑SI distention + acidic pH → ↑secretin

• produced by S cells in duodenum

• ↑HCO₃^- + ↑H⁺ into stomach

• helps to neutralize acid

cholecystokinin (CCK)

• released from I cells in duodenum + jejunum

• in response to fatty acids + AA

• ↑release of pancreatic enzymes + ↑gallbladder contraction → ↑bile secretion

• bile has bile salts which ↑ SA of incoming food

somatostatin

• released from delta cells in pancreas

• ↓gastrin, secretin, CCK → ↓digestion

neuronal control of digestive system

• enteric nervous system in ANS

  • has nerve plexuses

• controls secretions + GI mobility

• sympathetic: inhibits digestion

• parasympathetic: stimulates digestion

excretory system function

1. blood filtration + urine formation

   1. balance blood + electrolytes

2. maintenance of BP + BV

3. release of endocrine hormones

blood filtration + urine formation (excretory system)

• filters out toxic molecules + combine w urine in nephron

• 3 processes

  • glomerular filtration (1st)

  • tubular secretion

  • tubular reabsorption

glomerular filtration

incoming blood from renal arteries enter renal glomeruli (capillaries)

tubular secretion

molecules from blood entering filtrate

tubular reabsorption

molecules from filtrate enter blood

peritubular capillaries

blood vessels that interact w nephron for secretion + reabsorption

maintenance of BP + BV (excretory system)

• reabsorption of H₂O into blood stream

• 2 reabsorption sites

  • distal convoluted tubule

  • collecting duct

• stimulated by aldosterone

what happens when hypotension occurs?

↑aldosterone + vasopressin → ↑H₂O reabsorption → ↑BV → ↑BP

release of hormones (excretory system)

a) erythropoietin

• released during hypoxia to ↑RBC production

b) renin (renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system)

• renin → activates RAAS → ↑H₂O reabsorption → ↑BV + ↑BP

structure of kidney

1. renal cortex — outer portion

2. medulla — inner section

3. renal hilum — slit on medial side

   1. entrance + exit of vessels

structure of nephron

structural + fxnl part

1. renal corpuscle

2. proximal convoluted tubule (PCT)

3. loop of Henle

4. distal convoluted tubule (DCY)

5. collecting duct

renal corpuscle

• glomeruli + Bowman’s capsule

• only site of filtration in nephron

• blood enters glomeruli → Bowman’s capsule → filtrate + enters renal tubule

• fenestrated capillaries

proximal convoluted tubule (DCT)

• reabsorption

  • glucose, AA, Na, Cl-

  • active transport

• secretes: H⁺, urea, ammonia

loop of Henle

• descending limb:

  • passive reabsorption of H₂O

• ascending limb:

  • reabsorb Na + Cl

  • active transport

  • impermeable to H₂O

distal convoluted tubule (DCT)

aldosterone/vasopressin binds DCT → ↑Na reabsorption → ↑H₂O reabsorption → ↑BV + BP

collecting duct

• vasopressin causes reabsorption of H₂O via aquaporins

• in renal papilla + urine goes to renal pelvis → ureter → urinary system

endocrine system anatomy

1. hypothalamus

2. pineal gland

3. pituitary gland

4. thyroid gland

5. parathyroid gland

6. adrenal gland

7. ovaries

8. testes

9. thymus

10. pancreas