Bio/Biochem

Frontal Lobe

• executive fxns

  • problem solve

  • concentration + reasoning

  • planning + organization

  • personality, behavior, mood, emotions

  • Broca’s Area

  • motor area

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Broca’s Area

speech production

motor area

• frontal lobe

• primary motor cortex

• voluntary mvmt

temporal lobe

• hearing

• sorting verbal + visual mems

• short + long term mem

• balance

• understand language

• wernicke’s area

Wernicke’s area

language comprehension

Equilibrium

balance, located in ear

Parietal lobe

• sensory area

• Calculations

• Attention

• Sensation

• Perception (body awareness)

occipital lobe

• vision

  • visual system

  • visual info

• processes visuals + perceptions of shapes + sizes

Cerebellum

• mini brain

• balance

• rhythm

• proprioception

• posture

Glycolysis

• cytoplasm

• products:

  • 2 pyruvaye

  • 2 ATP

  • 2 NADH

  • 0 FADH2

Glycolysis steps 1 + 2

1. glucose —hexokinase→ glucose-6-phosphate

   1. ATP → ADP

2. G6P ←phosphoglucose isomerase→ fructose-6-phosphate

Glycolysis step 3

• RATE LIMITING STEP

3. fructose-6-phosphate ←phosphofructokinase→ fructose-1,6-bisphosphate

   1. ATP → ADP

Glycolysis steps 4 + 5

4. fructose-1,6-bisphosphate ←aldolase→ glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate

5. F-1,6-P ←aldolase→ DHAP ← triose phosphate isomerase→ 2 G3P

Glycolysis steps 6 + 7

6. (2x) G3P ←G3P dehydrogenase→ 1,3-bisphosphoglycerate

   1. NADH → NADH + H⁺

   2. P_i in

7. (2x) 1,3-bisphosphoglycerate ←phosphoglycerate kinase→ 3-phosphoglycerate

Glycolysis steps 8 + 9

8. (2x) 3-phosphoglycerate ←phosphoglycerate mutase→ 2-phosphoglycerate

9. (2x) 2-phosphoglycerate ←enolase→ phosphoenolpyruvate

Glycolysis step 10

10. (2x) phosphoenolpyruvate ←pyruvate kinase→ pyruvate

How many steps in GNG is diff from glycolysis?

3

What are the steps that are different in gluconeogenesis?

1. (2x) pyruvate ←pyruvate carboxylase→ oxaloacetate ←PEP carboxylase— PEP

2. fructose-1,6-bisphosphate ←F-1,6-bisphosphatase— F-6P

3. G6P ←glucose-6-phosphatase— glucose (product)

What is the mnemonic for TCA cycle?

Can I Keep Selling Sex For Money Officer

TCA cycle steps 1-3

1. citrate —aconitase→ isocitrate

2. isocitrate —isocitrate DH→ α-ketoglutarate

   1. NAD⁺ → NADH + H⁺

   2. CO₂ out

3. α-ketoglutarate —α-ketoglutarate DH→ succinyl-CoA

   1. NAD⁺ → NADH + H⁺

   2. CO₂ out

   3. CoA in

TCA cycle steps 4-6

4. succinyl CoA —succinyl-CoA synthetase→ succinate

   1. GDP → GTP

   2. P_i in

   3. CoA out

5. succinate —succinate DH→ fumarate

   1. FAD → FADH2

6. fumarate —fumarase→ malate

TCA cycle steps 7-8

7. malate —malate DH→ oxaloacetate

   1. NAD⁺ → NADH + H⁺

8. oxaloacetate —citrate synthase→ citrate

   1. CoA out

products of TCA cycle per glucose

• 4CO₂

• 2 ATP

• 6 NADH

• 2 FADH2

pyruvate oxidation/decarboxylation

2 pyruvate → 2 Acetyl-CoA

• CO2 out

• CoA-SH in

• NAD → NADH + H

• reward processing

• pleasures + addictions

• mvmts + motivations

• attention, mem, learning

• related to Parkinson’s anxiety, etc.

dopamine

• feel-good chem

• improve mood + reduce pain

• improve self-esteem

• reduce anxiety, stress, sadness

• increased by meditation + exercise

endorphins

• enhance well-being + happiness

• long term mem

• aids sleep cycle + digestion

• prevent depresion

• repair wounds

serotonin

• main inhibitory NT

• produce calming effect

• improve mem + cognitive fxns

• protect neurons from damage

• long lasting pain relief

GABA

• fight-or-flight

• increase alertness + attention

• mobilize brain + body for action

• increase blood flow in body

• block chronic pain

Noradrenaline (norepinephrine)

• fight-or-flight

• released in times of stress

• chronic stress

• increases HR

• meditation + exercise reduce it

adrenaline (epinephrine)

• main excitatory NT

• learning, mem, brain health

• excessive amts linked w diseases

• too little is harmful

• avoid excessive MSG

glutamate

• rest-and-digest

• attention, arousal, awakening

• stim of muscles

• learning, mem, neuroplastcicity

• HR control

• promotes REM sleep

acetylcholine (Ach)

TCA cycle location

mitochondrial matrix

ETC location

mitochondrial membrane

ETC complex I

• NADH DH

• NADH(from TCA) → NAD⁺

• H⁺ pumped from matrix to intermembrane space

• allow e- to move thru

ETC Complex II

• succinate DH

• FADH₂ (from TCA) → FAD

• e- from Complex I passes thru

ETC complex III

• ubiquinol cytochrome C oxidoreductase

• e- accepted by O₂

• forms H₂O in mito matrix

• H⁺ pumped from matrix to intermembrane space

ETC complex IV

• cytochrome C oxidase

• H⁺ pumped from matrix to intermembrane space

ETC complex V

• ATP synthase

• H⁺ from IMS travels thru complex + into matrix

• causes stalk to rotate

• produces enough energy for ADP→ATP

ATP/NADH and ATP/FADH₂

• 1 NADH → 10 H⁺ pumped → 2.5 ATP

• 1 FADH₂ → 6 H⁺ pumped → 1.5 ATP

*4H⁺ = 1 ATP

products of ETC

• 30-32 ATP

• 6 H₂O

2 types of fermentation

• lactic acid

• alcohol

lactic acid fermentation

1. Glycolysis: glucose → 2 pyruvate

   1. 2 NADH + 2 ATP

2. 2 pyruvate → 2 lactate

   1. 2 NAD⁺

alcohol fermentation

1. glycolysis: glucose → 2 pyruvate

   1. 2 NADH + 2 ATP

2. 2 pyruvate → 2 acetaldehyde

   1. CO₂ out

3. 2 acetaldehyde → 2 ethanol

   1. 2 NADH → 2 NAD⁺

glycogenesis location

liver + skeletal muscle

glycogenesis steps 1-2

1. glucose ←hexokinase/glucokinase (liver)→ G6P ←phosphoglucomutase→ G1P

2. G1P ←UDP-glucose phosphorylase→ UDP glucose

   1. UTP → PPi

glycogenesis steps 3-4

3. UDP-glucose → glycogen

   1. glycogen synthase (1-4)

   2. branching enzyme

   3. insulin stims glycogen synthesis

4. glycogen → G1P

   1. glycogen phosphorylase breaks (1-4)

   2. debranching enzyme breaks (1-6)

   3. glucagon/epi stim breakdown of glycogen

β-oxidation location

mitochondrial matrix

β-oxidation steps 1-2

1. fatty acyl-CoA → trans-Δ²-enoyl-CoA

   1. acyl-CoA dehydrogenase

   2. FAD → FADH₂

2. trans-Δ²-enoyl-CoA → 3-L-hydroxyacyl-CoA

   1. enoyl-CoA hydratase

   2. water in

β-oxidation steps 3-4

3. 3-L-hydroxyacyl-CoA → β-ketoacyl-CoA

   1. 3-L-hydroxyacyl-CoA DH

   2. NAD → NADH + H

4. β-ketoacyl-CoA → fatty acyl-CoA + acetyl-CoA

   1. β-ketothiolase

   2. HSCoA in

ketogenesis location

mitochondrial matrix of hepatocytes

ketogenesis steps 1-2

1. 2 acetyl-CoA ← → acetoacetyl-CoA

   1. thiolase

   2. CoA-SH out

2. acetoacyl-CoA ← → β-hydroxy-β-methylglutaryl-CoA (HMG-CoA)

   1. HMG-CoA synthase

   2. acetyl-CoA → CoA-SH

ketogenesis steps 3-4

3. HMG-CoA ← → acetoacetate

   1. HMG-lyase

   2. acetyl-CoA out

4. acetoacetate ← → D-β-hydroxybutyrate

   1. D-β-hydroxybutyrate DH

   2. NADH → NAD

      -OR-

   acetoacetate → acetone

   1. non-enzymatic decarboxylation

   2. CO₂ out

pentose phosphate pathway (ppp) location

cytosol

ppp steps 1-3

1. (glycolysis) → G6P

2. G6P → 6-phosphogluconate

   1. G6P-DH

   2. NADPH → NADPH

3. 6-phosphogluconate → ribulose

   1. NADP → NADPH

   2. CO₂ out

ppp steps 4-6a

4. ribulose → ribose 5-P (5C)

5. ribose 5-P (5C)→ sedoheptulose 7-P (7C)

   1. transketolase

6. sedoheptulose 7-P → fructose 6-P

   1. transaldolase

ppp steps 4-6b

4. ribulose → xylulose 5-P (5C)

5. xylulose 5-P → G3P

   1. transketolase

6. G3P → erythrose 4-P (4C)

   1. transaldolase

7. xylulose 5-P OR erythrose 4-P ← → F6P OR G3P

   1. transketolase