Ap World chapter 4 and 6

Era of Exploration

period when European powers began major overseas voyages, establishing global connections and laying foundations for colonial empires.

Motivations of Europe

desire for direct access to Asian luxury goods, to spread Christianity, to gain wealth and status, and to outcompete rival European states.

Advantages of Europe

strong monarchies, advanced naval technology, military gunpowder weapons, and the ability to raise money for long-distance exploration.

Innovations from Asian world Europe relied on

key technologies such as the compass, gunpowder, sails, and improved ship designs originally developed in China and the Islamic world.

Innovations in ship building and navigation by Europeans

development of the caravel, improved charts, understanding of Atlantic winds, and deep-hulled ships for ocean travel.

Hernan Cortes

Spanish conquistador who led the expedition that defeated the Aztec Empire using alliances, weapons, disease, and strategy.

Vasco de Gama

Portuguese explorer who was the first European to reach India by sea, establishing direct trade links.

Conquistadors

Spanish military leaders who conquered American empires for wealth, land, and glory backed by royal authority.

The Great Dying

massive decline of Native American populations due to exposure to European diseases like smallpox, measles, and flu.

Impact on indigenous population

caused demographic collapse, loss of cultures, social breakdown, and easier European conquest.

Little Ice Age

period of global cooling that reduced harvests and contributed to famines, rebellions, and economic struggles.

General Crisis

widespread political upheaval in Europe, China, and the Ottoman Empire in the 1600s partly caused by climate stress and economic strain.

Columbian Exchange

transfer of plants, animals, diseases, people, and ideas between the Americas and Afro-Eurasia after 1492.

Impact on Americas

diseases devastated populations, while horses, cattle, and European crops transformed indigenous societies.

Impact on Afro-Eurasia

new American crops like corn and potatoes caused major population growth and improved diets.

Important crops plants animals diseases and their origin

potatoes and corn from Americas

Mercantilism

economic theory that colonies exist to benefit the mother country through controlled trade and accumulation of precious metals.

Bullion

gold and silver that measured a nation’s wealth and fueled economic competition.

New Spain

Spanish colony in the Americas centered in Mexico and Central America.

Overthrow of the Aztec

Spanish victory achieved through alliances with rival tribes, superior weapons, and disease outbreaks.

Casta System and groups

racial hierarchy ranking Europeans highest and mixed-race and native groups below, shaping society.

Labor systems

systems forcing Indigenous labor to enrich Spanish colonists.

Encomienda

grant allowing Spaniards to extract labor and tribute from native communities.

Hacienda

large estates where workers often lived in debt and produced food or goods for owners.

Cultural syncretism

blending of Spanish Catholic and Indigenous beliefs, art, and traditions.

Mestizo

person of mixed Indigenous American and Spanish ancestry forming a new social class.

Other American colonies

European colonies outside New Spain, each with different economic purposes.

Brazil + Caribbean

regions dominated by Portuguese and Spanish sugar plantations using enslaved African labor.

Sugar producing colonies

economies centered around sugar production, which required plantation systems and large labor forces.

Mulattoes

people of mixed African and European descent, forming a significant social group in Latin America.

Settler colonies in North America

English colonies with large family migrations, small-scale farming, and less reliance on forced labor.

Russian Empire

expanding Eurasian state that grew across Siberia and into Central Asia.

Where Russia expanded and why

expanded east into Siberia for fur, south for security, and west to compete with Europe.

Yasak

fur tribute demanded by Russian authorities from Siberian native peoples.

Peter the Great

ruler who modernized Russia by strengthening the military, building a navy, and adopting Western technologies.

Catherine the Great

expanded Russian territory and continued selective Westernization while maintaining strong autocratic rule.

Cossacks

frontier warriors and settlers who helped Russia expand and maintain control of conquered lands.

Ming dynasty

Chinese dynasty that restored native Han rule and revived traditions after Mongol rule.

Architecture achievements rejection of Mongols

rebuilt the Great Wall, restored Beijing, and promoted purely Chinese cultural styles.

Traditional policies

revived Confucian examination system and strengthened centralized bureaucracy.

Zheng He expeditions

massive state-sponsored voyages showcasing Chinese wealth and power in the Indian Ocean.

Silver currency taxation

required taxes to be paid in silver, causing huge demand and linking China to global silver trade.

Gunpowder Empires

Islamic empires that used gunpowder weapons to expand: Ottoman, Safavid, and Mughal.

Qing Dynasty

Manchu-led dynasty that conquered China after the Ming collapse.

Origin

Manchus from northeast Asia united tribes and then took power in China.

Expansion

added Tibet, Xinjiang, and Mongolia, creating a multiethnic empire.

Ottoman Empire

powerful Sunni Islamic empire controlling parts of Europe, the Middle East, and North Africa.

Devshirme

system where Christian boys were taken, converted, and trained for elite military and administrative positions.

Safavid Empire

major Shia Islamic empire in Persia that shaped Iranian culture and identity.

Mughal Empire

large Indian empire ruling over Hindus and Muslims with a wealthy agricultural economy.

Zamindars

regional officials who collected taxes and maintained local authority.

Akbar

emperor who promoted religious tolerance, abolished jizya, and expanded the empire.

Aurangzeb

emperor who expanded territory but imposed stricter Islamic laws and revived jizya.

Administration

tax systems, bureaucracies, military elites, and methods of governing diverse peoples.

Economy

trade networks, agriculture, crafts, and revenues supporting each empire.

Achievements important buildings

monuments like the Taj Mahal, Blue Mosque, and imperial palaces.

Founding role of gunpowder

cannons and muskets essential for creating and defending these empires.

Important leader figure from each empire

rulers like Suleiman, Shah Abbas, and Akbar who shaped empire growth.

Religion and culture

dominant beliefs, tolerance policies, and artistic achievements.

Songhay Empire

West African empire controlling trans-Saharan trade routes and Islamic scholarship centers.

Rivalry between Ottoman and Safavid Empires

conflicts driven by Sunni vs. Shia divisions and competition for territory.

What all of the empires have in common

strong military use of gunpowder, centralized rule, diverse populations, and monumental architecture.

Ways in which European empires are different

focused on maritime expansion, global trade, and large overseas colonies.

Pueblo Revolt

successful 1680 rebellion where Pueblo peoples expelled the Spanish from New Mexico for over a decade.

Maritime Explorations

early long-distance voyages that connected continents and reshaped global trade.

Portuguese innovations

advanced ship designs, navigation schools, and improved maps enabling ocean travel.

Role of wind and currents

use of monsoon patterns and Atlantic gyres to plan predictable voyages.

Role of governments in sponsoring voyages

monarchs funded expeditions to gain wealth power and global influence.

Maritime Empires and Spice Trade:European attempts to control profitable spice routes in the Indian Ocean.

Spice Islands

Indonesian islands producing cloves, nutmeg, and mace highly valued in Europe.

Portugal Trading Post Empire

system of fortified ports that allowed Portugal to dominate trade without ruling land.

Rivalry with Ottomans and other Asian empires in trade

competition with Muslim powers and Asian merchants for control of commerce.

Spanish Philippines and Manila

colony linking American silver to Asian markets and spreading Christianity.

British East India Company

private company that gained political and economic control in India.

Dutch VOC

wealthy joint-stock company dominating spice production and enforcing monopolies in Indonesia.

Asian participation and reaction to European trade

Asian states either restricted Europeans, regulated them, or benefited from their presence.

Japanese isolationism

policy limiting foreign influence to protect social order and stability.

Expulsion of Europeans

removal of missionaries and most traders except limited Dutch presence.

Tokugawa shogunate

centralized feudal government that unified Japan and controlled daimyo.

Ming Dynasty restrictions against foreign merchantsn

policies limiting trade to certain ports and restricting foreign influence.

What Asian groups of traders existed before European entrance and after?

Arab, Indian, Chinese, and Southeast Asian merchants shaped trade long before and continued after Europeans.

Global Silver Trade

worldwide circulation of silver linking the Americas, Europe, and Asia.

Where did the silver come from

mines in Spanish America especially Potosi in Bolivia.

Where did it go

primarily to China and Europe through global trade routes.

Why was China called a “silver drain”

massive Chinese demand pulled most of the world’s silver into its economy.

What was a piece of eight

Spanish silver coin used globally as one of the first universal currencies.

Impact of silver trade on Potosi

enormous wealth extraction, dangerous labor conditions, and environmental destruction.

Impact of silver on China

boosted commerce but caused inflation and dependence on silver for taxes.

Impact of silver on Europe

stimulated trade growth and strengthened merchant classes.

Impact of silver on global commerce

created the first truly global trading system linking all major regions.

Fur Trade

trade in animal pelts from North America and Siberia driven by high demand for warmth and fashion.

Why was it called “soft gold”?

extremely valuable and profitable like gold but derived from animal furs.

What caused the fur trade

cold climates, European fashion trends, and global market demand.

Where did the fur trade come from?

beaver-rich regions in North America and sable-rich forests in Siberia.

Compare American and Russian fur trades

American trade relied on native partnerships while Russian trade used coercion and tribute.

Slave Trade

forced transport of millions of Africans to the Americas for plantation labor.

Causes of the slave trade

demand for labor on sugar, tobacco, and cotton plantations and African internal conflicts.

Where people were captured where did they end up

West and Central Africans taken to Caribbean Brazil and North American plantations.

Treatment of enslaved peoples

brutal conditions, harsh punishments, and dehumanizing labor systems.

Middle Passage

horrific voyage across the Atlantic with extremely high mortality rates.