Rousseau

What two types of inequality does Rousseau distinguish?

Natural/physical inequality and moral/political inequality.

Which type of inequality is NOT natural according to Rousseau?

Moral/political inequality because it is created by social institutions.

How does Rousseau describe the State of Nature?

A peaceful and solitary life with simple needs and minimal conflict.

What goods does natural man recognize?

Nourishment, a woman, and rest.

What evils does natural man recognize?

Pain and hunger.

What natural sentiments define the "noble savage"?

Pity (pitié) and self-preservation.

What is Rousseau's Maxim of Nature?

"Do what is good for you with as little harm as possible to others."

Why is natural man morally pure?

Because he lacks comparison and therefore lacks pride, envy, and vanity.

Is inequality present in the State of Nature?

It is "hardly observable" in the state of nature.

What is perfectibility?

The uniquely human capacity to develop and improve, pushing humans out of the state of nature.

Why does Rousseau believe reason corrupts natural man?

Because reason produces egocentrism and fuels amour-propre.

How does language change humanity?

It enables abstract thought and comparison, leading to moral inequality.

What new passion emerges only in society?

Amour-propre, or socially driven vanity and concern for others' opinions.

How would humanity have avoided misery according to Rousseau?

If someone had stopped the first person who claimed property.

What does the evolutionary explanation for leaving the state of nature emphasize?

Perfectibility and reason gradually leading humans into society.

What does the sociological explanation for leaving the state of nature emphasize?

Division of labor, dependency, leisure, and comparison.

How does leisure contribute to inequality?

It creates time for comparison and thus produces shame, envy, pride, and contempt.

What invention marks humanity's fall from grace?

Private property.

How do the wealthy shape society once property exists?

They design institutions and laws to serve their own interests.

How does Rousseau describe civilized man?

Dependent, domesticated, greedy, corrupt, unhealthy, and unhappy.

Why is civilized man unhealthy?

He overeats, consumes bad food, needs medicine, and is stressed by ambition.

What happens to pity in civil society?

It weakens and is replaced by vanity and competition.

What is Rousseau's thesis about inequality?

It arises from human development and becomes legitimate only with property and law.

What distinguishes natural inequality from moral inequality?

Natural inequality is physical; moral inequality results from institutions.

What central problem does The Social Contract address?

How people can live together while remaining free.

What is the goal of the Social Contract?

To create an association where each person obeys only themselves but unites with all.

What is Rousseau's Social Contract?

A covenant among citizens to form a political body guided by the general will.

What is Rousseau's view of representative sovereignty?

He rejects it because sovereignty cannot be represented.

What is his view of representative government?

It is acceptable for executing laws but not for making them.

Who holds sovereignty in Rousseau's theory?

The people collectively.

What is the general will?

The common interest aimed at equality and public utility.

How does the general will differ from the will of all?

The will of all is private interests summed; the general will is the common good.

How is the general will discovered?

Through independent citizen deliberation without communication or factional influence.

Why must partial societies be avoided?

Because factions distort the general will into private wills.

What is civil liberty?

Obedience to laws one prescribes to oneself.

What is natural liberty?

Unlimited freedom restricted only by strength.

Why is civil liberty superior to natural liberty?

It involves self-mastery and moral autonomy.

What does "forced to be free" mean?

Citizens can be compelled to obey the general will because it represents true freedom.

Why is acting on appetite alone a form of slavery?

It is domination by impulse instead of rational self-rule.

Why does Rousseau see modern representation as slavery?

Because citizens surrender their lawmaking power to representatives.

Why must republics be small and homogeneous?

To allow direct participation and preserve civic unity.

What is the sovereign?

The collective decision-making power of the people.

What is government according to Rousseau?

The body that executes laws, not the body that creates them.

What form of government does Rousseau consider most stable?

Aristocracy.

What role does the legislator play?

Creating laws that express the general will while setting aside private interest.

Why is the legislator an extraordinary man?

He must transcend all personal interests to understand the nature of society.

Why is equality necessary for liberty?

No one should be rich enough to buy another or poor enough to be forced to sell themselves.

What is the greatest threat to republican liberty?

Private interests interfering with public affairs.

Why does Rousseau oppose political parties?

They generate private wills that overpower the general will.

Why do assemblies matter?

They reaffirm the general will through direct participation.

What vote threshold is ideal for major decisions?

Near unanimity.

Why are dissenters mistaken about the general will?

Because the general will represents the common good and dissent reflects error.

What is the Comitia?

An institution that preserves commitment to the general will.

What is the Tribunate?

A balancing institution protecting the general will from corruption.

Why does Rousseau support censorship?

To preserve morals and prevent corruption of public opinion.

What does censorship maintain?

Public mores and the correct formation of opinion.

What is civil religion?

A set of civic beliefs enforcing sociability, loyalty, and duty to the laws.

Why can civil religion be enforced?

Not for belief but because rejecting it is unsociable and harmful to unity.

What is the purpose of civil religion?

To cultivate citizens who love the laws and their civic duties.

Can the sovereign compel belief?

No, but it can banish those who reject civic sentiments.

What breaks social unity according to Rousseau?

Diversity of opinion that undermines shared civic values.

What is Rousseau's view of diversity in a republic?

It is dangerous unless unified under a common ethos.

What modern practices resemble civil religion?

National pledges, patriotic rituals, civic oaths.

What must every citizen learn to think in terms of?

What is generally applicable, not private interest.

What is the worst political danger for Rousseau?

Partial associations and factions that corrupt the general will.

What does rousseau think about civil freedom

Rousseau thinks civil freedom is the freedom we gain when we leave the state of nature and enter a political community governed by the general will. Unlike natural liberty, which is just doing whatever one has the physical power to do, civil freedom means obeying the laws one has prescribed for oneself. It is a form of self-mastery, where individuals are no longer slaves to their appetites or impulses but instead follow rational, collectively made laws. Civil freedom transforms humans from instinct-driven individuals into moral citizens capable of autonomy, equality, and shared governance. In this sense, joining a legitimate political society does not reduce freedom—Rousseau argues it actually makes true freedom possible.