Lecture Notes on Apoptosis, Autophagy, and Cellular Aging

This set of flashcards covers key concepts from lectures on apoptosis, autophagy, cellular aging, intracellular accumulations, and amyloidosis, which are crucial for understanding cellular biology and pathology.

Apoptosis

Programmed cell death that eliminates unwanted or damaged cells.

Caspases

Proteases activated in the process of apoptosis that lead to cell death.

Intrinsic pathway

Apoptosis pathway activated by internal signals, primarily involving mitochondria.

Extrinsic pathway

Apoptosis pathway activated by external signals through death receptors.

Pyknosis

Nuclear shrinkage and condensation during apoptosis.

Karyorrhexis

Fragmentation of the nucleus during apoptosis.

Apoptotic bodies

Membrane-bound structures formed during apoptosis that are phagocytosed by macrophages.

Necrosis

Uncontrolled cell death that often induces inflammation.

Necroptosis

A programmed form of cell death that shares features of both necrosis and apoptosis.

Pyroptosis

A form of programmed cell death associated with inflammation and cytokine release.

Telomeres

Protective ends of chromosomes that shorten with each cell division.

Telomerase

An enzyme that extends telomeres, present in germ cells and cancer cells.

Sirtuins

A family of proteins that play a role in prolonging lifespan through calorie restriction.

Hyaline change

Intracellular or extracellular alteration characterized by a glassy appearance on H&E stains.

Amyloidosis

Disorder caused by the deposition of misfolded proteins (amyloid) in tissues.

Russell bodies

Eosinophilic cytoplasmic inclusions found in plasma cells due to immunoglobulin accumulation.

Hemosiderin

Iron-storage complex that accumulates in tissues, potentially leading to hemochromatosis.

Metastatic calcification

Calcium deposition in normal tissues due to elevated calcium levels in the blood.

Dystrophic calcification

Calcium deposition in damaged or necrotic tissue despite normal blood calcium levels.

Atherosclerosis

Disease characterized by the accumulation of lipids in arterial walls, forming plaques.

Cholesterol esters

Lipids that can accumulate in phagocytic cells, leading to foam cell formation in atherosclerosis.

Lipofuscin

A wear-and-tear pigment that accumulates in cells as they age, particularly in the heart and brain.

Silicosis

Respiratory disease caused by the inhalation of silica dust, leading to pulmonary fibrosis.

Hypercalcemia

Elevated calcium levels in the blood that can lead to metastatic calcification.

Glycogen storage disease

A group of inherited conditions that result in abnormal glycogen metabolism.

Familial Mediterranean Fever

Genetic disorder characterized by recurrent fevers and serosal inflammation due to defective neutrophils.

Multiple myeloma

A cancer of plasma cells that can produce amyloid light chains in amyloidosis.

Congo red stain

A dye used to detect amyloid deposits in tissues, showing apple-green birefringence.

Alzheimer's disease

Neurodegenerative disorder characterized by the accumulation of amyloid-beta plaques.

Neurodegenerative diseases

Conditions like Alzheimer's and Parkinson's that involve progressive loss of neuron function.

Ischemic injury

Tissue damage resulting from reduced blood flow, affecting cellular metabolism and survival.

Fas receptor

A death receptor that, when activated, triggers apoptotic signaling pathways.

TNF receptor

A receptor that initiates apoptosis through binding to tumor necrosis factor.

Bax and Bak

Pro-apoptotic proteins that promote the release of cytochrome c from mitochondria.

Bcl-2 and Bcl-X

Anti-apoptotic proteins that inhibit cell death by preventing mitochondrial release of cytochrome c.

Immortal cells

Cells that possess mechanisms to bypass normal limits on replication, like telomerase activity.

Caloric restriction

A dietary intervention that extends lifespan and promotes healthy aging through metabolic changes.

Cytokine

Signaling molecules that mediate immune responses, including those released during pyroptosis.

Aβ2-microglobulin

Protein associated with amyloid deposits in hemodialysis-related amyloidosis.

Kidney involvement in amyloidosis

Common manifestation leading to nephrotic syndrome and renal failure.

Cardiac amyloidosis

Condition where amyloid deposits in the heart lead to restrictive cardiomyopathy.

Biopsy

A diagnostic procedure involving the extraction of tissue samples for examination.

H&E stain

Hematoxylin and eosin stain commonly used in histology to visualize tissue structure.

Plasmacytosis

Increased number of plasma cells in the bone marrow, often associated with malignancies.

Cellular aging

Accumulation of cellular damage and aging features over time, influencing health and lifespan.

Fibrillar aggregates

Protein structures formed by misfolded proteins, characteristic of amyloid deposits.

Organelle accumulation

Buildup of cellular organelles or substances due to dysfunction in metabolism or degradation.

Pathophysiology

Study of the functional changes that occur in the body as a result of a disease.

Systemic forms of amyloidosis

Affects multiple organ systems, requiring comprehensive diagnostic and management approaches.

Localized amyloidosis

Amyloid deposits confined to one specific organ or tissue.

Senile cardiac amyloidosis

Age-related accumulation of transthyretin amyloid, leading to cardiac dysfunction.

Down syndrome and Alzheimer’s

Increased risk of developing Alzheimer's in individuals with Down syndrome due to trisomy 21.

Microangiopathy

Pathology involving small blood vessels, often linked to diabetes and amyloidosis.

Renal failure in amyloidosis

Resulting from amyloid deposit-induced damage to the kidney structure and function.

Hepatosplenomegaly

Enlargement of the liver and spleen often seen in systemic amyloidosis.

Macroglossia

Enlargement of the tongue, a clinical finding in AL amyloidosis.

Biochemical similarities

Common features shared by different forms of cell death, such as apoptosis and pyroptosis.

Tissue damage

Harm caused to tissues due to diseases or metabolic disorders, frequently triggered by apoptosis.

Executioner caspases

Caspases responsible for dismantling the cell during the late stages of apoptosis.

Cell surface receptors

Molecular structures on the cell membrane that bind to external signals, triggering pathways.

Cytotoxic anticancer drugs

Medications that induce apoptosis in cancer cells by causing DNA damage.

Immunoglobulin light chain

Component of antibodies that can form amyloid deposits in certain conditions.

Lysosomes

Cell organelles responsible for breaking down waste materials and cellular debris.

Metabolic alterations

Changes in cellular pathways that can lead to disease, including those affecting apoptosis.

Phagocytosis

The process by which cells, such as macrophages, engulf and digest cellular debris.

Biomarkers of aging

Biological indicators that reflect cellular and physiological changes over time.

Chronic inflammatory conditions

Long-term inflammation which can lead to diseases, including amyloidosis.

Fusion with lysosomes

The process where cellular components combine with lysosomes for degradation.

Interleukin-1 (IL-1)

Cytokine released during pyroptosis, contributing to inflammatory responses.

Endoplasmic reticulum

Cell organelle involved in protein folding, secretion, and lipid synthesis.

Endogenous substances

Natural compounds produced within the body; can accumulate and cause pathology.

Exogenous substances

Materials originating outside the body, which can also accumulate in cells.

Cellular proteostasis

Balance of protein synthesis, folding, and degradation to maintain cellular health.

Autophagic pathways

Cellular mechanisms responsible for the degradation of components through autophagy.

Oxidative stress

Damage caused by reactive oxygen species, influencing apoptosis and aging.

Embryogenesis

The process of development of an embryo, which involves programmed cell death.

Cytoplasmic inclusions

Aggregates of proteins or substances within the cytoplasm that can indicate cellular dysfunction.

Chemical structures of proteins

The distinct formations and arrangements that define protein functionality and interactions.

Chronic kidney disease

A condition where kidney function declines over time, often leading to systemic issues.

Disease mechanisms

The biological processes that lead to the manifestation of diseases such as cancer and amyloidosis.

Cellular signaling pathways

Network of biochemical reactions that cells use to respond to internal and external cues.

Therapeutic interventions

Medical treatments intended to alleviate or cure specific diseases or conditions.

Eosinophilic staining

Technique used in histopathology to highlight structures or deposits within tissues.

Cellular homeostasis

Maintenance of stable internal conditions within cells, vital for healthy function.

Neuroprotective strategies

Approaches aimed at preserving neuron function and preventing degeneration.

Stem cells

Undifferentiated cells with the ability to differentiate into various cell types.

Genetic mutations

Alterations in DNA that can lead to diseases, including those affecting apoptosis.

Endocrine tumors

Cancers arising from hormone-producing cells, some associated with amyloid deposits.

Pathological conditions

Diseases or disorders characterized by abnormal bodily functions or structures.

Nutritional factors

Elements of diet that can influence cellular aging processes and overall health.

Fibrosis

Thickening and scarring of connective tissue, often a result of chronic inflammation.

Programmed cell elimination

The process by which cells undergo planned death as part of normal physiology.

Tumor necrosis factor (TNF) alpha

Cytokine involved in systemic inflammation and can initiate apoptosis.

Protein aggregation

Clumping of proteins that can lead to cellular dysfunction and disease.

Tissue engineering

The use of biological and engineering methods to develop replacement tissues.

Stem cell therapy

Medical treatment involving the use of stem cells to repair or replace damaged tissues.

Cell cycle regulation

Control of the progression of cells through the phases of growth and division.

Immunotherapy

Treatment designed to enhance the body’s immune response against diseases like cancer.

Histopathological analysis

Examination of tissues to study the manifestations of disease at a microscopic level.

Molecular pathways

Biochemical routes that signal cellular activities and responses to stimuli.