AP Psychology Unit 4 - Learning

Associative Learning

learning that certain events occur together

Behavioral Perspective

an approach that focuses on how observable behaviors are learned and influenced by the environment

Biofeedback

a technique using electronic sensors to provide real-time data (like heart rate, muscle tension, brainwaves) about involuntary bodily processes, teaching people to gain voluntary control over them to manage stress, anxiety, pain, and improve health, often by connecting with relaxation or cognitive strategies. It demonstrates principles of learning (operant conditioning) by reinforcing desired internal shifts, helping students understand mind-body connections, stress responses, and self-regulation.

Biological Predispositions to Learning

evolved, innate tendencies that allow humans and animals to learn specific survival-relevant behaviors rapidly and easily; same as preparedness

Biological Preparedness

we are predisposed to learn associations that help us survive

Bobo Doll Experiment

showed that children learn a lot through observational learning and modeling; also supported vicarious reinforcement and punishment

Classical Conditioning

learning to associate two stimuli and thus anticipate a response; a type of associative learning with INVOLUNTARY BEHAVIORS

US (Unconditioned Stimulus)

stimulus that naturally and automatically produces a response

UR (Unconditioned Response)

naturally occurring response to a stimulus (US)

CS (Conditioned Stimulus)

a previously irrelevant stimulus (NS) that comes to trigger a conditioned response after association with a US

CR (Conditioned Response)

a learned response to a previously neutral, but now conditioned stimulus

Just before- a neutral stimulus should be presented ___ ____ an unconditioned stimulus in order for conditioning to happen

Cognitive Map

mental representation of the layout of an environment

Counterconditioning

using classical conditioning to evoke new responses to stimuli that are triggering unwanted behaviors; able to reverse fears

Counterconditioning (Example)

Kami had always been afraid of snakes, but after therapy where she was relaxed while petting a snake, she was no longer afraid

Criticisms of B. F. Skinner

critics argued Skinner’s reinforcement approach dehumanized people by reducing behavior to rewards and punishments and ignoring free will

External Locus of Control

the perception that chance or outside forces beyond personal control determine fate

Internal Locus of Control

the perception that we control our own fates through free will

Extinction

the diminishing or elimination of a conditioned response when the unconditioned stimulus no longer follows the conditioned stimulus

Generalization

the tendency that once a response has been conditioned, similar stimuli will elicit similar responses

Generalization (Example)

Leila was bitten by a German shepherd and is now afraid of all dogs

Habituation

an organism’s decreasing response to a stimulus with repeated exposure

Higher-Order Conditioning

linking a new conditioned stimulus to a new neutral stimulus, creating a second (often weaker) conditioned stimulus

Insight Learning

a sudden realization of a problem’s solutions

Intrinsic Motivation

motivation from within yourself to perform a behavior for its own sake

Extrinsic Motivation

motivation from the environment; performing a behavior in order to receive rewards or avoid punishment

John B. Watson (Little Albert Experiment)

psychologist and experiment that emphasized observable behavior and demonstrated that emotions could be classically conditioned

Law of Effect

behaviors followed by pleasurable rewards are more likely to be repeated; behaviors followed by punishment are less likely to be repeated

Latent Learning

learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it

Learned Helplessness

hopelessness and passive resignation that someone learns when unable to avoid bad outcomes; often continues even after restrictions are removed

Martin Sigelman’s dogs

experiment on learned helplessness

Lessons for Parents

rewarding good behavior is more effective than punishing bad behavior; caving into children’s demands will condition them to continue demanding

Mirror Neurons

frontal neurons that are believed to fire when we watch someone else do something as if we are doing it too

Modeling

process of observing others and imitating a specific behavior

Observational Learning (Social Learning)

learning by watching and imitating others

One-Trial Conditioning

a single pairing of stimulus and response creates an incredibly strong association; especially common with food poisoning

Operant Conditioning

a type of learning in which voluntary behavior is strengthened by reinforcement or weakened by punishment

Positive Reinforcement

adding a positive experience after a behavior

Positive Reinforcement (Example)

getting paid for good grades

Negative Reinforcement

removing something negative after a behavior

Negative Reinforcement (Example)

not having to do dishes after bringing home a good report card

Positive Punishment

adding an unpleasant stimulus to decrease a behavior

Positive Punishment (Example)

spanking or scolding a misbehaving child

Negative Punishment

removing a pleasant stimulus to decrease a behavior

Negative Punishment (Example)

taking away a rebellious teen’s phone

Primary Reinforcers

innately reinforcing stimuli such as food, water, and warmth

Secondary Reinforcers

learned reinforcers such as money, grades, or praise

Schedules of Reinforcement

patterns that define how often a desired response will be reinforced

Continuous Reinforcement

reinforcing a behavior every time it occurs; learned quickly and extinguished quickly

Partial Reinforcement

reinforcing a behavior only part of the time; slower learning and slower extinction

FR (Fixed Ratio)

reinforces after a set number of responses

FR (Example)

coffee shop punch card (buy 9, get 10th free)

VR (Variable Ratio)

reinforces after an unpredictable number of responses

VR (Example)

slot machines and gambling

FI (Fixed Interval)

reinforces after a specific amount of time

FI (Example)

getting paid every two weeks

VI (Variable Interval)

reinforces after varying, unpredictable amounts of time

VI (Example)

teacher randomly checking notes

Prosocial behavior

modeling helpful, positive behavior leads to good imitation

Antisocial Behavior

modeling negative, aggressive behavior leads to bad imitation

Self-Control

ability to control impulses and delay short-term gratification for greater long-term rewards

Shaping

reinforcing successive approximations toward a desired behavior

Skinner Box

an operant chamber with a bar or key that an animal manipulates to obtain reinforcement

Spontaneous Recovery

the reappearance of an extinguished conditioned response after a pause

Spontaneous Recovery (Example)

Jada overcame her fear of heights but panicked again while rock climbing

(Stimulus) Discrimination

the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and other stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus

Discrimination (Example)

Georgia fears curling irons after being burned but not other hot tools

Superstitious Behaviors

coincidental timing of reward/punishment leads to obsessively repeated behaviors that have nothing to do with the consequence

Taste Aversion

no longer wanting to eat a food after being classically conditioned with a bad experience

Vicarious Conditioning

watching others receive a reward/punishment makes you anticipate the same consequence for that behavior

Violence-Viewing Effect

violent media causes imitation and desensitization