Attitudes - Lecture 3

Definition of attitude 1

Definition of attitude 1

people’s evaluation of almost any aspect of the social world

Definition of attitude 2

associations between an attitude object and evaluations of those objects

what is an attitude object?

an aspect of the social world

Attitude as defined by Penrod 1986

predispositions to respond in a positive or negative way to a particular object or issue

what are explicit attitudes?

consciously accessible attitudes that are controllable and easy to report

what are implicit attitudes?

unconscious associations between objects and evaluative responses

How are attitudes formed?

Classical conditioning, instrumental learning, observational learning, social comparison and genetics

What is classical conditioning?

it is based on association, one stimulus becomes a signal for a second one

What is an example of classical conditioning?

Pavlov’s dogs: the bell became a signal for food and produced salivating

What is subliminal conditioning?

conditioning that occurs unconsciously.

How many times must the initial conditioning behaviour occur for it to be successful?

several times

What is another term for instrumental learning?

Operant conditioning

What are rewards in instrumental learning?

a stimulus that increases the chances of the behaviour

what is punishment in instrumental learning?

a stimulus that decreases the chances of the behaviour occuring

What leads to positive outcomes in instrumental learning?

Strengthening of responses

What is positive reinforcement?

adding a rewarding stimulus

What is negative reinforcement?

removal of aversive stimulus

what does instrumental conditioning explain?

Why children may have attitudes about topics they do not fully understand because of their parents rewarding the attitude.

what is observational learning?

learning by example and observing the behaviour in reproducing what was observed.

Where is observational learning evident?

in trends and attitudes toward popular things like clothes

what is social comparison according to Festinger 1954

when we compare ourselves to others in order to determine whether our view of social reality is correct

what does the research by Robinson, Thomas, Aveyard & Higgs 2014 suggest about Social Comparison?

that when eating with others we tend to mimic their eating behaviour

What does social comparison suggest about our attitudes?

if our attitudes match those of others then we must be correct

How is genetics related to attitudes?

thoughts occur in the brain and the brain structure is genetically influenced

What have studies demonstrated about genetics and attitudes?

that there is a small genetic component in attitudes

What do the Twin Studies state?

the attitudes of identical twins are more common than those of non identical twins or unrelated people

What attitudes are heritable?

attitudes involving basic topics like music

How does personality relate to attitudes and values? Roccas et al. (2002)

Personality traits can be correlated with some values

what does agreeableness correlate with?

Benevolence, tradition

what does extraversion correlate with?

achievement, stimulation

what does conscientiousness correlate with?

achievement, conformity

what does openness to experience correlate with?

self-direction, universalism

What are the components of attitudes?

affective, behavioural, cognitive

what does Allport 1935 state about the ABC model

an attitude is an interplay between cognitions, emotional evaluations and the action tendencies associated with objects or situations

what is the affective component of attitudes?

the feelings and emotions associated with perception

what is the cognitive component of attitudes?

the perceptions, thoughts and beliefs about the qualities of an object or event

what is the behavioural component of attitudes?

the intentions and actions in relation to objects and events.

What does the behaviour component of attitudes relate to?

intentions or predispositions rather than only actual behaviour

what are the functions of attitudes?

knowledge, affective, behavioural, value expressive, social adjustment, instrumental, self-esteem, ego-defensive, and impression motivation

what is attitude formation?

a basic cognitive process that can be viewed as almost automatic

what do attitudes aid in?

the interpretation of new stimuli and enable rapid responding to attitude relevant information

what is the knowledge function of attitudes?

to give adequate structure to one’s universe by organising information about the social world

how does the knowledge function of attitudes help an individual?

by simplifying complex stimuli and make sense of their environment to make judgements and decisions.

what is the affective function of attitudes?

it influences our emotional response to objects, people or situations

what is the behavioural function of attitudes?

it guides behaviour by influencing intentions and actions by providing a basis for decision making

what is the value expressive function of attitudes?

it is a means to express one’s values, beliefs and identity because the individual derives satisfaction from expressing attitudes

what is the social adjustment function of attitudes?

helps to allow individuals to fit into social groups because it signals shared values and improves social cohesion

We are most likely to adopt the attitude position of someone who…..?

shares an important identity with us

what is the instrumental function of attitudes?

we hold attitudes that we think will bring rewards or help avoid punishment

what is the self esteem function of attitudes?

we hold attitudes that maintain or enhance feelings of self worth.

What attitude is a good predictor of behaviour?

Attitudes based on moral convictions

what is the ego defensive function of attitudes?

when a person protects themselves from acknowledging truths about themselves or the external world

what is an example of ego-defensive function?

Negative attitude to criticism is a defense mechanism

what is the impression motivation function of attitudes?

when attitudes are used to lead others to have a positive view of the individual

what can attitudes that serve an impression motivation function do?

lead people to formulate arguments that support their views

How does social context influence attitudes?

social context directly influences the extent to which attitudes determine behaviour

What can be better predictors of behaviour than actual attitudes?

People’s assumptions about the attitudes of others and what they think of them

People can be wrong about what attitudes they think others hold because of what concept?

Pluralistic ignorance

what is a better predictor of behaviour than weak attitudes?

strong attitudes

which type of attitude is more accessible? Strong or weak?

Strong attitudes

what affects the strength of an attitude?

vested interest, role of personal experience, attitude certainty and attitude specificity

what is vested interest?

when people are affected by an object or issue

what is personal experience?

direct experience with an attitude object or result

what are important factors of attitude certainty?

attitude clarity and attitude correctness

what is attitude certainty

the extent to which an individual is confident in their beliefs,

what increases attitude certainty?

when a person learns that other’s share their attitudes

what can increase resistance to a persuasive message?

when both components of attitude certainty are high

what is attitude specificity?

the extent to which attitudes are focused on specific objects rather than general ones

what do research findings indicate about the attitude-behaviour link?

it is stronger when attitudes and behaviours are measured on the same level of specificity

what factors account for the discrepancy between attitudes and behaviour?

availability, relevance and situation

what does the theory of planned behaviour state?

the decision to engage in a particular behavior is the result of a rational process.

What is the rational process in the theory of planned behaviour?

behavioural options are considered, consequences evaluated and the ability to perform the behaviour is considered

When is the intention-behaviour relationship stronger?

when there is a plan for how intentions will result in behaviour

What is an implementation plan?

a plan for how to implement our intentions

What does an implementation plan consider?

our attitudes, subjective norms and perceived behavioural control

what does the attitude to behaviour process model try to explain?

instances when we don’t have time to consider relevant factors

what happens when we don’t have time to consider factors before behaving?

an automatic process

what happens during the automatic process?

the situation activates an attitude and the formation of a habit

Are attitudes resistant to change?

Yes

Do attitudes change?

Yes

How does attitude change occur?

as a result of internal and external forces

what industries are interested in attitude change?

commercial advertisements and social policies

How can attitudes be changed?

through learning, persuasion and brain washing

What is a means of attitude change?

social influence like conformity, obedience and compliance

what is persuasion?

efforts to change attitudes through the use of messages

what is persuasion focused on?

the characteristics of the communicator and the audience

what are the Factors involved in the Yale Model of Persuasion

Source, Message and Audience

what are some factors included in the source (who)?

credibility, expertise, similarity, intentions/motives

What are some factors included in the message (what)?

speech style, communication discrepancy and appeals to fear

what are some factors included in the audience (to whom)?

intelligence, personality, gender and age

what is the sleeper effect?

the persuasive impact of a message can increase over time

who is credited for the Elaboration likelihood model?

Petty & Cacioppo 1986

Who is credited for the heuristic-systematic model?

Chaiken et al 1989

What are the two ways that we process persuasive messages?

Systematic and heuristic processing

What is systematic processing?

careful consideration of message content and ideas

When are we more likely to use systematic processing?

when our motivation is high, we have knowledge on topic and more time to engage in careful thought

what is the central route to persuasion?

attitude change resulting from systematic processing of information

what is heuristic processing?

involves the use of simple rules or mental shortcuts

what is the peripheral route to persuasion?

attitude change in response to peripheral persuasion cues like expertise or status

when are we more likely to use heuristic processing?

when we lack capacity to process carefully, the issue is unimportant and we have little knowledge