BU288: In-class material Midterm 1

definition of an organization

a consciously coordinated social unit that functions on a relatively continuous basis to achieve a common goal or set of goals

definition of organizational behaviour

field of study that investigates the impact that individuals/groups/structures have on behaviour in organizations

purpose of studying organizational behaviour

applying knowledge to improve organizations' effectiveness

2 aspects of organizational behaviour research

systematic and objective

definition of evidence-based management

calls for organizational practices that are based on scientific evidence

3 benefits of evidence-based management

1. increase predictability

2. increases odds of success

3. increases value to an organization

4 steps of the scientific method

1. hypotheses

2. data

3. verification

4. theory

definition of hypothesis

predictions that specify relationships between variables

definition of theory

explains why, how, and when variables are related

definition of independent variable

a predictor of changes in a dependent variable

definition of dependent variable

varies as a function of the independent variable

definition of validity of measurement

index of the extent to which a measure reflects what it is supposed to

definition of reliability of measurement

index of consistency of the data

4 types of research technique

1. case study

2. observational (participant or direct)

3. correlational (surveys, interviews, or existing data)

4. experimental (lab or field)

definition of correlational techniques

research that attempts to measure variables precisely and examine relationships among them without introducing change

correlation vs causation

correlation: indicates an association between two variables

causation: indicates cause and effect

definition of internal validity

the extent to which researchers can be confident that changes in a dependent variable are due to an independent variable (validity of study design)

definition of external validity

the extent to which the results of study generalize to other samples and settings (better with large, random samples)

level of internal/external validity for each of 4 research designs

1. case study: low internal, mid external

2. observational: mid internal, low external

3. correlational: low internal, high external

4. experimental: high internal, low external

definition of mediating variable

variable that explains why or how relationships operate (IV is related to DV because of mediator)

definition of moderating variable

explains when a relationship operates and affects the strength of another relationship (interacts with the independent variable)

5 common issues in organizational behaviour research

1. mistaking correlation for causation

2. measurement can be bad (low validity)

3. small/inappropriate samples limit external validity

4. single studies may not replicate (ie. random error)

5. third variables/alternative explanations may not be considered

definition of personality

the relatively stable set of psychological characteristics that influences the way individuals react with their environment, and how they think, feel, and behave

3 approaches to personality research

1. dispositional

2. situational

3. interactionist

definition of dispositional approach to research

individuals possess stable traits or characteristics that influence their behaviours, and are predisposed to behave in certain ways

definition of situational approach to research

the situation influences people's behaviours, and people are likely to behave in similar ways in similar situations

definition of interactionist approach to research

behaviour is a function of the interactions between disposition and the situation

definition of weak situation

roles are loosely defined and it is unclear how one should act (personality has strong effect)

definition of strong situation

roles are more defined and it is clear how one should act (personality has weaker effect)

5 big personality traits

1. conscientiousness

2. agreeableness

3. neuroticism/emotional stability

4. openness to experience

5. extraversion

7 other personality dimensions

1. locus of control

2. self-monitoring

3. self-esteem

3. positive/negative affectivity

4. proactive personality

5. self-efficacy

6. core self-evaluations

2 implications of employees' personalities

1. person-job fit

2. person-organization fit

definition of conscientiousness

degree of organization, dependability, thoroughness, and achievement-oriented activities that a person exhibits (measure of reliability)

how conscientiousness affects job performance

positively related to job performance for most jobs

definition of agreeableness

the ability to get along with others, and the degree of courtesy, trust, cooperation, and tolerance that a person exhibits

how agreeableness affects job performance

positively related to performance in service jobs, but too much or too little can negatively affect performance in certain situations

definition of neuroticism

the inability to handle stress, and lack of emotional stability

how neuroticism affects job performance

a minimum threshold of emotional stability is necessary for job performance

definition of openness to experience

the capacity to entertain new ideas and change as a result of new information: creative, original, and open-minded

how openness to experience affects job performance

positively related to training proficiency

definition of extraversion

the quality of being comfortable in relationships, and the degree of sociability

how extraversion is related to job performance

positively related to performance when a job requires social interaction

definition of learning

relatively permanent change in behaviour occurring as a result of practice or experience

definition of the law of effect

people repeat behaviours that bring them satisfaction and pleasure, and stop those that bring them dissatisfaction and pain

4 types of operant learning

1. positive reinforcement

2. negative reinforcement

3. punishment

4. extinction

definition of positive reinforcement

applying a positive stimulus to increase a desired behaviour

definition of negative reinforcement

withdrawing a negative stimulus to increase a desired behaviour

definition of punishment

applying a negative stimulus to decrease an undesired behaviour

definition of extinction

withdrawing a positive stimulus to decrease an undesired behaviour

2 types of reinforcement schedules

1. continuous: follow each display of behaviour

2. partial: only some responses are rewarded

6 considerations for using positive reinforcement

1. make sure the reward is reinforcing to that person

2. identify the correct behaviours to reinforce

3. administer such that high performers receive more than low performers

4. don't reward just before/after punishing

5. for new behaviours, use continuous and for established, use partial

6. make sure rewards are directly tied to behaviours

4 problems using punishment

1. doesn't demonstrate which behaviours should replace it

2. only indicates what isn't appropriate (not what is)

3. only temporarily suppresses the behaviour

4. can provoke a strong emotional reaction

6 considerations for using punishment

1. deliver it immediately

2. go easy, but make sure it is truly aversive

3. punish the behaviour, not the person

4. be consistent

5. communicate the reasons for punishment

6. provide an acceptable alternative

5 aspects of effective training

1. describe a set of well-defined behaviours to be learned

2. provide a model displaying effective use of the behaviours

3. provide opportunities to practice

4. provide feedback and social reinforcement

5. take steps to maximize transfer of behaviours to the job

definition of perception

the process used to organize and interpret sensory impressions to give meaning to an environment

3 factors that influence perception

1. the context

2. the target

3. the perceiver

5 common perceptual biases/errors

1. selective perception: seeing things based on our own frame of reference

2. primacy effects: relying on first impressions

3. recency effects: relying on last impressions

4. halo/horns effect: when the rating on one trait colours ratings on other traits

5. projection bias: the tendency to believe that others think and feel the same as us

definition of stereotype

an overly generalized belief about a category of people (almost always wrong at the individual level)

2 consequences of stereotyping

1. can result in unfairness for individuals

2. can result in decreased organizational performance

4 ways that stereotyping can result in decreased organizational performance

1. accurate selection/hiring

2. accurate assessment of performance

3. performance management

4. can decrease diversity

definition of social identity theory

individuals form perceptions of themselves based on personal attributes and group memberships

3 determinants for attribution of behaviour

1. distinctiveness: acting the same in other situations

2. consensus: acting the same as others in the same situation

3. consistency: acting the same way over time

3 steps of the attribution process

1. observation

2. interpretation

3. attribution of cause

3 attributional biases/errors

1. fundamental attribution error: underestimating external factors and overestimating internal factors when making judgements about others

2. self-serving bias: attributing successes to internal factors and putting blame for failures on external factors

3. confirmation bias: the tendency to only seek out confirmatory information

3 parts of job performance

1. task performance: behaviours that are part of the job

2. organizational citizenship behaviour: contributes to the social and psychological environment of work

3. counterproductive work behaviours: harm the well-being of the organization

definition of attitudes

fairly stable tendencies to respond consistently to some specific target

definition of job satisfaction

a collection of attitudes that workers have about their job or individual facets of their job

9 facets of job satisfaction

1. nature of the work itself

2. compensation

3. career opportunities

4. recognition

5. benefits

6. working conditions

7. supervision

8. coworkers

9. organizational policies

determinants of job satisfaction

both disposition and situation (genes play a large part)

3 types of fairness

1. distributive: how fair you think your outcomes are

2. procedural: how fair the procedures are that led you to your outcomes

3. interactional: fairness of interactions between employees and boss when receiving outcomes

definition of equity theory

individuals comparing their job inputs and outcomes with those of others, then responding to eliminate inequities

6 responses to inequity

1. change inputs

2. change outcomes

3. adjust perceptions of self

4. adjust perceptions of others

5. choose a different referent

6. quit

3 determinants of intentions for behaviours

1. attitude toward the behaviour

2. subjective norms

3. perceived behavioural control

(behaviour still may not happen depending on actual behavioural control)

definition of self perception theory

people making reasonable inferences about their attitudes based on perceptions of their behaviour

definition of cognitive dissonance

when a behaviour and attitudes are inconsistent

definition of affect

broad range of feelings that people experience (encompassess mood and emotions)

definition of mood

feelings that tend to be less intense then emotions, and not directed at anything

definition of emotions

intense feelings that are directed at someone or something

definition of emotional labour

when employees experience a conflict between how they feel and the emotions they are expected to display when interacting with others