language sign, lexical semantics, semiotics

linguistics and language

the use of language is an integral part of being human

all languages are surprisingly similar in their basic structure

language and abstract thought - closely connected, these two characteristics above all distinguish human beings from animals

origins of language

theories about the origin of language - speculations

we simply don’t know how language originated

we suspect that some type of spoken language developed between 100 000 and 50 000 years ago, well before written language (about 5 000 years ago)

lack of any kind of physical evidence about how/when our ancestor began to use language to communicate

there has been no shortage of speculation about the origins of human speech

origins of language - sources

1. the divine source

in most religions, there appears to be a divine source who provides humans with language

experiments in egypt, king james IV. of scotland - very young children living without access to human language in their early years grow up with no language at all

2. the natural sound source

imitations of the natural sounds which early people heard around them

a) bow-wow theory - in addition to cuckoo, we have splash, bang, boom, rattle, buzz, hiss, screech

b) natural cries of emotion - pain, anger, joy (ouch, ah, ooh, wow, yuck)

BUT - on the in-breath (not typical), sounds are not otherwise used in speech production

c) the social interaction source / the yo-he-ho theory

the sounds of a person involved in physical effort could be the source of our language, especially when that physical effort involved several people and had to be coordinated (grunts, groans, curses)

3. the physical adaption source

upright posture, with bipedal (on two feet) locomotion, and a revised role for the front limbs

adaptions relevant for speech: teeth, lips, larynx, pharynx

what is linguistics?

the scientific, systematic study of language, describes language in all its aspects and formulates theories as to how it works

synchronic L - the study of the state of language at any given point in time

diachronic L - the study of language change

general (theoretical L - describes general principles for the study of all languages, determines the caracteristics of human language as a phenomenon

descriptive L - dercribes a particular language system

comparative L - identifies the common characteristics of different languages or language families

subdivisions of linguistics

phonology - the study of sound patterns

morphology - composition of words

syntax - composition of sentences

semantics - the study of meaning

what is a language?

a human system of communication, either spoken or written, consisting of the use of words in a structured and conventional way

any more or less systematic means of communication, such as animal cries and movements, gestures, language of computing, ….

language of a country - system of communication used by a particular community or country (the french l)

natural language = traditional human use

artificial language = devised languages like esperanto, computes languages

ferdinand de saussure

a linguist, his ideas laid a foundation for many developments in linguistics in the 20th century

structural linguistics - treats language as an interwoven structure, in which every item ecquires identity and validity only in relation to the other items in the system

saussure - a game of chess

a chess piece in isolation has no value

a move by any one piece has effects on all the others

an item’s role in a structure can be dicovered by examining those items which occur alongside it and those which can be substituted for it

saussure - langue

refers ti language system shared by a community of speakers

language as an abstract system of signs

the language system of a speech community

any langue must be described synchronically as a system of interrelated elements (lexical, grammatical, phonological) and not as a mixture of independent entities

saussure - parole

refers to the concrete act of speaking in actual situations produced by an individual

utterance

changes in langue proceed from changes made by individuals in their parole

a linguist is able to observe the parole and based on the observations describe the langue

saussure - langage

refers to the human biological faculty of speech

this term is superior to the terms langue and parole

competence and performance

similar terms to langue and parole, which are used in generative grammar (founded by noam chomsky)

competence - refers to speakers’ knowledge of their language (langue)

• the system of rules which they have mastered so that they are able to produce and understand an indefinite number of sentences, and to recognize frammatical mistakes and ambiguities

performance - the actual use of language in concrete situations (parole)

linguistic sign (abbitrariness, semiotics)

two parts - a signifier (form) and something signified (meaning)

a relation of mutual dependence between a concept that is “signified” of the form that “signifies” it

abbitrariness = important feature - there is no link in most words between sound (or the form) used and the meaning expressed (kočka, cat, katze)

• there is no connection between the word cat and the animal it symbolizes, it is arbitrary, BUT conventional

linguistic sign - bilateral, arbitrary, conventional

semiotics: the study of signs and how they communicate ideas