AP Psychology Unit 2 Cognition (updated for 24/25 SY)

Bottom-up processing

analysis that begins with the sensory receptors and works up to the brain's integration of sensory information

Top-down processing

information processing guided by higher-level mental processes, as when we construct perceptions drawing on our experience and expectations

Schema

a concept or framework that organizes and interprets information

Perceptual Set

a mental predisposition to perceive one thing and not another

Gestalt psychology

a psychological approach that emphasizes that we often perceive the whole rather than the sum of the parts

Closure

the tendency to complete figures that are incomplete

Figure and ground

the organization of the visual field into objects (the figures) that stand out from their surroundings (the ground).

proximity

the way relationships are formed between things close to one another

similarity

the tendency to perceive things that look similar to each other as being part of the same group

attention

focusing awareness on a narrowed range of stimuli or events

selective attention

the ability to focus on only one stimulus from among all sensory input

cocktail party effect

Ability to concentrate on one voice amongst a crowd

inattentional blindness

failing to see visible objects when our attention is directed elsewhere

Change blindness

failing to notice changes in the environment; a form of inattentional blindness

binocular depth cues

clues about distance based on the differing views of the two eyes

retinal disparity

a binocular cue for perceiving depth by comparing images from the retinas in the two eyes, the brain computes distance—the greater the disparity (difference) between the two images, the closer the object.

convergence

A binocular cue for perceiving depth; the extent to which the eyes converge inward when looking at an object

monocular depth cues

aspects of a scene that yield information about depth when viewed with only one eye

relative clarity

a monocular cue for perceiving depth; hazy objects are farther away than sharp, clear objects

relative size

a monocular cue for perceiving depth; the smaller retinal image is farther away

texture gradient

the tendency for textured surfaces to appear to become smaller and finer as distance from the viewer increases

linear perspective

A monocular cue for perceiving depth; the more parallel lines converge, the greater their perceived distance.

interposition

if one object partially blocks our view of another, we perceive it as closer

apparent movement

An illusion of movement perception that occurs when stimuli in different locations are flashed one after another with the proper timing.

prototypes

a mental image or best example of a category

assimilation

interpreting our new experiences in terms of our existing schemas

accommodation

adapting our current understandings (schemas) to incorporate new information

algorithms

very specific, step-by-step procedures for solving certain types of problems

heuristics

Mental shortcuts or "rules of thumb" that often lead to a solution (but not always).

representativeness heuristic

a mental shortcut whereby people classify something according to how similar it is to a typical case

availability heuristic

estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory; if instances come readily to mind (perhaps because of their vividness), we presume such events are common

mental set

a tendency to approach a problem in one particular way, often a way that has been successful in the past

priming

the activation, often unconsciously, of particular associations in memory

framing

the way an issue is posed; how an issue is framed can significantly affect decisions and judgments.

gambler's fallacy

the belief that the odds of a chance event increase if the event hasn't occurred recently

sunk-cost fallacy

people make decisions about a current situation based on what they have previously invested in the situation

executive functions

higher order thinking processes that include planning, organizing, inhibition, and decision-making

creativity

the ability to produce novel and valuable ideas

divergent thinking

expands the number of possible problem solutions

convergent thinking

narrows the available problem solutions to determine the single best solution

functional fixedness

the tendency to perceive an item only in terms of its most common use

storage

the retention of encoded information over time

retrieval

the process of bringing to mind information that has been previously encoded and stored

Explicit memory

memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and "declare"

Episodic Memory

the collection of past personal experiences that occurred at a particular time and place

Semantic memory

a network of associated facts and concepts that make up our general knowledge of the world

Implicit memory

retention of learned skills or classically conditioned associations independent of conscious recollection

Procedural memory

a type of implicit memory that involves motor skills and behavioral habits

Prospective memory

remembering to do things in the future

Long-term potentiation

gradual strengthening of the connections among neurons from repetitive stimulation

Working memory model

describes short-term memory as a system with multiple components; suggests that short-term memory is dynamic and multifaceted

Primary memory system

hippocampus

working memory

A newer understanding of short-term memory that involves conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual-spatial information, and of information retrieved from long-term memory.

Central executive

the part of working memory that directs attention and processing

phonolgical loop

holds and retains verbal information. rehearsal. uniquely human characteristic. thought to evolve for learning of new languages.

Visuospatial sketchpad

A component of working memory where we create mental images to remember visual information

Long-term memory

the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system. Includes knowledge, skills, and experiences.

Multi-store model

An explanation of memory based on three separate memory stores, and how information is transferred between these stores.

Sensory memory

the immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system

Iconic memory

a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; a photographic or picture-image memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a second

Echoic memory

a momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli

Automatic processing

unconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space, time, and frequency, and of well-learned information, such as word meanings

Effortful processing

encoding that requires attention and conscious effort

Encoding

the processing of information into the memory system

Levels of processing model

the more deeply an item is encoded, the more meaning it has and the better it is remembered

Shallow encoding

encoding based on sensory characteristics, such as how something looks or sounds

Deep encoding

encoding based on an event's meaning as well as connections between the new event and past experience

Structural, phonemic, and semantic

three levels of processing

Mnemonic devices

techniques for using associations to memorize and retrieve information

Method of loci

A mnemonic technique that involves associating items on a list with a sequence of familiar physical locations

Chunking

organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically

Categories

clusters of interrelated concepts

Hierarchies

A Social structure that organizes ranks people such as in a class system.

Spacing effect

the tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention than is achieved through massed study or practice

Memory consolidation

the gradual, physical process of converting new long-term memories to stable, enduring memory codes

Massed practice

a practice schedule in which studying continues for long periods, without interruption

Distributed Practice

spacing the study of material to be remembered by including breaks between study periods

Serial position effect

our tendency to recall best the last and first items in a list

Primacy effect

tendency to remember information at the beginning of a body of information better than the information that follows

Recency effect

tendency to remember recent information better than earlier information

short-term memory

activated memory that holds a few items briefly, such as the seven digits of a phone number while dialing, before the information is stored or forgotten

Maintenance rehearsal

A system for remembering involving repeating information to oneself without attempting to find meaning in it

Elaborative rehearsal

a method of transferring information from STM into LTM by making that information meaningful in some way

memory retention

ability to recall information

Autobiographical memory

the memory for events and facts related to one's personal life story

Retrograde amnesia

an inability to retrieve information from one's past

Anterograde amnesia

an inability to form new memories

Alzheimer's disease

a progressive and irreversible brain disorder characterized by gradual deterioration of memory, reasoning, language, and, finally, physical functioning

Infantile amnesia

the inability to retrieve memories from much before age 3

Recognition

the ability to match a piece of information or a stimulus to a stored image or fact

Retrieval cues

Stimuli that are used to bring a memory to consciousness or into behavior

Context-dependent memory

The theory that information learned in a particular situation or place is better remembered when in that same situation or place.

Mood-congruent memory

the tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one's current good or bad mood

State-dependent memory

The theory that information learned in a particular state of mind (e.g., depressed, happy, somber) is more easily recalled when in that same state of mind.

testing effect

enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply rereading, information

metacognition

awareness and understanding of one's own thought processes.

Forgetting curve

a graphic depiction of how recall steadily declines over time

Encoding failure

the inability to recall specific information because of insufficient encoding of the information for storage in long-term memory

Proactive interference

the disruptive effect of prior learning on the recall of new information

Retroactive interference

the disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of old information