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Job Design
How organizations define and structure jobs to enhance employee performance.
Job Specialization
Breaking jobs into small, standardized tasks across workers; can lead to boredom and job dissatisfaction.
Job Rotation
Systematically moving workers from one job to another to reduce monotony, but doesn't fully address boredom.
Job Enlargement
Giving workers more tasks to perform.
Job Enrichment
Giving workers more tasks and control over how to perform them.
Participation
Giving employees a voice in decisions about their work, administrative matters, and product quality.
Empowerment
Enabling workers to set goals, make decisions, and solve problems within their responsibility.
Compressed Work Schedule
Employees work full-time hours in fewer days.
Job Sharing
Two or more part-time employees share one full-time job.
Extended Work Schedule
Work schedule with long work periods followed by extended paid time off.
Flexible Work Schedule (Flextime)
Gives employees control over their daily work hours.
Telecommuting
Employees work off-site for part of their time.
Goal
A desirable objective used to manage motivation and enhance employee performance.
Goal Difficulty
Extent to which a goal is challenging and requires effort.
Goal Specificity
Clarity and precision of a goal.
Goal Acceptance
The degree to which a person accepts a goal as their own.
Goal Commitment
The degree to which a person is personally invested in reaching a goal
Management by Objectives (MBO)
Collaborative goal-setting where organizational goals cascade down.
Performance Appraisal
Process of measuring, evaluating, documenting, and communicating an employee's work behaviors.
Performance Management
Ongoing process that includes performance appraisal, recognizing, coaching, and training employees.
360-Degree Feedback
Performance feedback from all sides of the organization
Balanced Scorecard (BSC)
Structured performance management identifying financial/nonfinancial measures.
Reward System
All components involved in allocating compensation and benefits to employees.
Surface Value
Objective worth of a reward.
Symbolic Value
Subjective and personal worth of a reward.
Compensation Package
Money, incentives, benefits, privileges, and awards provided to employees.
Incentive Systems
Plans where employees earn extra compensation for certain performance.
Indirect Compensation
Employee benefits as a form of compensation.
Perquisites
Special privileges for select organizational members, usually top managers.
Employee Recognition
Explicit acknowledgment and praise for desired behaviors/outcomes
Flexible Reward Systems
Systems allowing employees to choose benefits that best suit their needs
Pay Transparency
Policy where exact amounts of employee compensation are public knowledge.
Motivation
A set of forces that leads people to behave in particular ways
Need
Anything an individual requires or wants, triggering attempts to satisfy the need.
Scientific Management
Approach to motivation that assumes employees are motivated by money.
Human Relations Approach
Fostering a false sense of employees’ inclusion in decision making will result in positive employee attitudes and motivation to work hard.
Human Resource Approach
Assumes that people want to contribute and are able to make genuine contributions.
Task-Specific Self-Efficacy
A person’s beliefs in their capabilities to do what is required to accomplish a specific task
Magnitude (of Self-Efficacy)
Beliefs about how difficult a task can be to accomplish
Strength (of Self-Efficacy)
Beliefs about how confident the person is that the specific task can be accomplished
Generality (of Self-Efficacy)
Beliefs about the degree to which similar tasks can be accomplished
Need-Based Theory
Assumes that need deficiencies cause behavior.
Hierarchy of Needs
Assumes that human needs are arranged in a hierarchy of importance including physiological, security, belongingness, esteem, and self-actualization needs.
Deficiency Needs
Physiological, security, and belongingness needs; must be satisfied for the individual to survive and be fundamentally comfortable.
Growth Needs
Esteem and self-actualization needs; focus on personal growth and development
ERG Theory
Describes existence, relatedness, and growth needs, where more than one need may motivate a person at the same time.
Two-Factor Theory
Identifies motivation factors (intrinsic to the work itself) and hygiene factors (extrinsic to the work itself).
Motivation Factors
Are intrinsic to the work itself and include factors such as achievement and recognition
Hygiene Factors
Are extrinsic to the work itself and include factors such as pay and job security
Acquired Needs Framework
Centers on the needs for achievement, affiliation, and power.
Need for Achievement
The desire to accomplish a task or goal more effectively than was done in the past.
Need for Affiliation
The need for human companionship.
Need for Power
The desire to control the resources in one’s environment.
Process-Based Perspective
Focuses on how people behave in their efforts to satisfy their needs.
Equity Theory
Focuses on people’s desire to be treated with what they perceive as equity and to avoid perceived inequity.
Equity
The belief that we are being treated fairly in relation to others; inequity is the belief that we are being treated unfairly in relation to others.
Expectancy Theory
Suggests that people are motivated by how much they want something and the likelihood they perceive of getting it.
Effort-to-Performance Expectancy
The perceived probability that effort will lead to performance
Performance-to-Outcome Expectancy
The perceived probability that performance will lead to certain outcomes
Outcome
Anything that results from performing a behavior
Valence
The degree of attractiveness or unattractiveness (value) that a particular outcome has for a person.
Learning
A relatively permanent change in behavior or behavioral potential resulting from direct or indirect experience.
Classical Conditioning
A simple form of learning that links a conditioned response with an unconditioned stimulus.
Reinforcement Theory
Based on the idea that behavior is a function of its consequences; also called operant conditioning.
Social Learning
When people observe the behaviors of others, recognize the consequences, and alter their own behavior as a result.
Behavior Modification
The application of reinforcement theory to influence the behaviors of people in organizational settings
Positive Reinforcement
Uses rewards or other desirable consequences that a person receives after exhibiting behavior.
Negative Reinforcement (Avoidance)
Involves opportunity to avoid or escape from an unpleasant circumstance after exhibiting behavior.
Punishment
Is the application of unpleasant or aversive consequences to decrease the likelihood of a behavior.
Extinction
Decreases the frequency of behavior by eliminating a reward or desirable consequence that follows a behavior.
Group
Two or more people who interact with one another such that each person influences and is influenced by each other person.
Team
An interdependent collection of at least two individuals who share a common goal and share accountability for the team’s as well as their own outcomes.
Workgroups
Formal groups formed by the organization to do its work.
Command group
A relatively permanent, formal group with functional reporting relationships, usually included in the organization chart.
Affinity group
A collection of employees from the same level in the organization who meet on a regular basis to share information, capture emerging opportunities, and solve problems.
Functional teams
Members come from the same department or functional area
Cross-functional teams
Members come from different departments or functional areas
Problem-solving teams
Solve problems and make improvements
Self-directed teams
Set their own goals and pursue them in ways defined by the team
Venture teams
Operate semi-autonomously to create and develop new products, processes, or businesses
Virtual teams
Made up of geographically and/or organizationally dispersed coworkers who communicate using telecommunications and information technologies
Global teams
Face-to-face or virtual teams whose members are from different countries
Friendship group
Relatively permanent and informal and draws its benefits from the social relationships among its members
Interest group
Relatively temporary and informal and is organized around a common activity or interest of its members
Group composition
The degree of similarity or difference among group members on factors important to the group’s work
Homogeneity
The degree to which members are similar in one or several ways that are critical to the group’s work.
Heterogeneity
The degree to which members differ in one or more ways that are critical to the group’s work.
Social loafing
The tendency of some members of groups to put forth less effort than they would when working alone
Norm
A standard against which the appropriateness of a behavior is judged
Informal leader
A person who engages in leadership activities but whose right to do so has not been formally recognized by the organization or group
Mutual acceptance stage
Characterized by members’ sharing information about themselves and getting to know each other
Communication and decision-making stage
Members discuss their feelings more openly and agree on group goals and individual roles in the group
Motivation and productivity stage
Members cooperate, help each other, and work toward accomplishing tasks
Control and organization stage
The group is mature; members work together and are flexible, adaptive, and self-correcting
Process gain
Performance improvements that occur because people work together rather than independently
Process loss
Performance decrements that occur when a team performs worse than the individual members would have if they had worked alone
Team efficacy
A team’s shared belief that it can organize and execute the behaviors necessary to reach its goals
Trust
Confidence that other people will honor their commitments, especially when it is difficult to monitor or observe the other people’s behavior
Social facilitation
Happens when people are motivated to look good to others and want to maintain a positive self-image
Role
Defines the behaviors and tasks each team member is expected to perform because of the position they hold