BEHAVIOURISM

"Describe the philosophical roots of behaviourism."

"Behaviourism has its roots in the ideas of Aristotle, who stated that we learn by association, and was later re-emphasized by empiricists in the 17th century, focusing on processes of association as the foundation of knowledge."

"Explain the significance of J.B. Watson in the development of behaviourism."

"J.B. Watson established behaviourism as a dominant psychological approach by discarding inner mental processes and focusing solely on observable behaviour, leading to the re-definition of psychology as the 'Science of Behaviour'."

"Define classical conditioning in the context of behaviourism."

"Classical conditioning is a learning process where a neutral stimulus becomes associated with a meaningful stimulus, leading to a conditioned response, as emphasized by behaviourists like Watson."

"How did behaviourism contrast with Freudian psychodynamic theory?"

"Behaviourism focused on observable behaviour and rejected inner mental processes, while Freudian psychodynamic theory emphasized unconscious motives and internal psychological conflicts."

"What is the 'black box' concept in behaviourism?"

"The 'black box' concept refers to the idea that the internal mental processes of an organism are not observable; instead, behaviourists focus on the stimulus (input) and response (output) without inferring the internal workings."

"Explain the role of environmental stimuli in methodological behaviourism."

"Methodological behaviourism seeks to explain human and animal behaviour primarily through environmental stimuli and learning histories, emphasizing the influence of the environment on behaviour."

"Describe the implications of Watson's principle that 'all learning is by classical conditioning.'"

"This principle suggests that complex behaviours can be understood as a series of simpler conditioned responses, indicating that behaviour can be shaped and modified through conditioning."

"How did the concept of reflexes contribute to Watson's behaviourist principles?"

"Watson viewed reflexes as the basic unit of analysis in behaviour, asserting that all behaviour consists of reflexive responses to stimuli, thus eliminating the distinction between animal and human behaviour."

"What does the term 'tabula rasa' mean in the context of behaviourism?"

"'Tabula rasa' refers to the idea that individuals are born as a blank slate, with all knowledge and behaviour inscribed through learning experiences."

"Explain the relationship between behaviourism and the cognitive revolution."

"Behaviourism, which focused on observable behaviour, was later challenged by the cognitive revolution, which emphasized the importance of mental processes and internal states in understanding behaviour."

"Describe the main idea behind B. Watson's quote regarding the upbringing of infants."

"Watson believed that with the right environment, he could train any healthy infant to become any type of specialist, regardless of their inherent traits or background."

"Explain the significance of the Little Albert experiment conducted by Watson and Rayner."

"The Little Albert experiment demonstrated the conditioning of emotions, showing that fear could be conditioned in a child through association."

"How does classical conditioning work according to Ivan Pavlov's research?"

"Classical conditioning involves pairing a neutral stimulus (Conditioned Stimulus) with an unconditioned stimulus (UCS) to elicit a conditioned response (CR) that is similar to the unconditioned response (UCR)."

"Define the terms Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS) and Unconditioned Response (UCR) in classical conditioning."

"UCS is a stimulus that naturally triggers a response without prior conditioning, while UCR is the natural response to the UCS."

"What is the role of the Conditioned Stimulus (CS) in classical conditioning?"

"The Conditioned Stimulus (CS) is a previously neutral stimulus that, after being paired with the UCS, begins to elicit a conditioned response (CR) on its own."

"Describe the process of acquisition in classical conditioning."

"Acquisition is the learning process that occurs when a conditioned response (CR) is established through repeated pairings of the conditioned stimulus (CS) with the unconditioned stimulus (UCS)."

"Explain the concept of extinction in classical conditioning."

"Extinction refers to the reduction of a conditioned response (CR) when the conditioned stimulus (CS) is presented repeatedly without the unconditioned stimulus (UCS)."

"What is spontaneous recovery in the context of classical conditioning?"

"Spontaneous recovery is the reappearance of a previously extinguished conditioned response (CR) after a period of absence of the conditioned stimulus (CS), although the recovered response is usually weaker."

"How does generalization differ from discrimination in classical conditioning?"

"Generalization occurs when a conditioned response (CR) is elicited by stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus (CS), while discrimination involves responding only to the specific CS and ignoring other similar stimuli."

"Discuss the importance of classical conditioning for survival."

"Classical conditioning is crucial for survival as it helps organisms learn to associate certain stimuli with significant events, such as food or danger, allowing them to respond appropriately to their environment."

"Describe the concept of generalizing stimuli in classical conditioning."

"Generalizing stimuli involves responding similarly to different stimuli that indicate danger, such as rustling leaves."

"Explain the difference between classical conditioning and operant conditioning."

"Classical conditioning focuses on learning through association between stimuli, while operant conditioning involves learning through the consequences of voluntary behaviors."

"Define trace conditioning in classical conditioning."

"Trace conditioning occurs when there is a delay introduced between the conditioned stimulus (CS) and the unconditioned stimulus (UCS)."

"How does context conditioning differ from other forms of classical conditioning?"

"Context conditioning involves associating a response with the environment rather than specific stimuli."

"What is blocking in classical conditioning?"

"Blocking occurs when a previously established association prevents the formation of a new association with a second stimulus."

"Explain the significance of Watson and Rayner's experiment with Little Albert."

"Watson and Rayner's experiment demonstrated classical conditioning by showing how a child could develop a fear response to a previously neutral stimulus (a white rat) through association with a loud noise."

"Describe the role of classical conditioning in understanding anxiety disorders."

"Classical conditioning helps in understanding anxiety disorders by illustrating how certain stimuli can trigger fear responses, leading to phobias."

"How can classical conditioning be applied in exposure therapies?"

"Exposure therapies use principles of classical conditioning to facilitate the extinction of phobias by gradually exposing individuals to the feared stimulus without the associated negative outcome."

"What is the relationship between food poisoning and food aversion in classical conditioning?"

"Food poisoning can lead to a conditioned aversion to a specific food, where the food becomes a conditioned stimulus associated with the unconditioned response of feeling sick."

"Define unconditioned stimulus (UCS) in the context of classical conditioning."

"An unconditioned stimulus (UCS) is a stimulus that naturally and automatically triggers a response without prior conditioning."

"What is the conditioned response (CR) in classical conditioning?"

"The conditioned response (CR) is the learned response to a previously neutral stimulus that has become associated with an unconditioned stimulus."

"Explain the concept of fear conditioning in Autism Spectrum Disorder."

"Fear conditioning in Autism Spectrum Disorder involves abnormal responses to stimuli, such as a loud noise (UCS) and a red color (CS), indicating potential dysfunction in emotional processing."

"Describe the focus of methodological behaviorism in psychology."

"Methodological behaviorism emphasizes observable behaviors rather than internal mental states, focusing on how behaviors can be measured and analyzed."

"How do the principles of classical conditioning remain influential in psychology?"

"The principles of classical conditioning have remained influential due to their applicability in various fields, including therapy, education, and understanding emotional responses."

"What is the role of the amygdala in classical conditioning related to fear responses?"

"The amygdala plays a crucial role in processing fear responses and is often implicated in abnormal functioning related to fear conditioning."

"Identify key figures associated with operant conditioning."

"Key figures in operant conditioning include E.L. Thorndike and B.F. Skinner, who focused on voluntary behaviors and their consequences."

"Explain the difference between voluntary behaviors and reflexes in the context of operant conditioning."

"Voluntary behaviors are actions that are consciously controlled, while reflexes are automatic responses that occur without conscious thought."

"Describe the experiment conducted by Thorndike in 1898."

"Thorndike placed a hungry animal in a cage with a lever that opened a door, leaving food outside to observe how quickly the animal learned to retrieve the food over repeated trials."

"Define instrumental learning as proposed by Thorndike."

"Instrumental learning is the concept that behavior is 'instrumental' in bringing about a desired outcome, where positive outcomes increase the frequency of behavior and negative outcomes decrease it."

"Explain the law of effect in operant conditioning."

"The law of effect states that behaviors followed by positive outcomes are more likely to be repeated, while those followed by negative outcomes are less likely to occur."

"How did Skinner contribute to the field of operant conditioning?"

"Skinner coined the term operant conditioning and developed the Skinner box, demonstrating how behaviors could be reinforced or punished to increase or decrease their frequency."

"What is the significance of the Skinner box in operant conditioning?"

"The Skinner box allowed for controlled experiments where the effects of reinforcement and punishment on behavior could be observed, such as how rats learned to press a lever for food."

"Identify the three components of operant conditioning."

"The three components are Antecedent Condition (signal for a response), Behavior, and Consequence."

"Explain how antecedents can be used in operant conditioning experiments."

"Antecedents can be varied to assess what animals can discriminate, such as using different colored lights to signal when food is available or not."

"Describe how behaviors can be shaped and chained in operant conditioning."

"Behaviors can be shaped by reinforcing successive approximations to a desired behavior and chained by linking together multiple behaviors to create complex responses."

"What is positive reinforcement in operant conditioning?"

"Positive reinforcement involves presenting a pleasurable stimulus following a behavior, which increases the likelihood of that behavior being repeated."

"Differentiate between primary and secondary reinforcement."

"Primary reinforcement provides an immediate, direct reward (e.g., sweets), while secondary reinforcement offers a delayed, indirect reward (e.g., gold star)."

"What is negative reinforcement?"

"Negative reinforcement involves withdrawing an aversive stimulus to increase the likelihood of a behavior being repeated."

"Explain the concept of aversive punishment in operant conditioning."

"Aversive punishment involves presenting an aversive stimulus following a behavior, which decreases the likelihood of that behavior being repeated."

"What is response cost in the context of operant conditioning?"

"Response cost refers to withdrawing a pleasurable stimulus as a consequence of a behavior, which decreases the likelihood of that behavior occurring again."

"Describe the variable ratio schedule of reinforcement."

"A variable ratio schedule presents a reward after a variable number of target behaviors, which can lead to high rates of response."

"What is a fixed interval schedule of reinforcement?"

"A fixed interval schedule presents opportunities for obtaining a reward at fixed intervals, leading to a predictable pattern of responses."

"How can operant conditioning be applied in animal training?"

"Operant conditioning principles can be used to train animals, such as teaching rescue dogs or lead dogs specific commands and behaviors."

"Identify one application of operant conditioning in education."

"Operant conditioning can be applied in education through techniques like token economies to motivate students."

"Explain how operant conditioning principles can be used in parenting."

"Parents can use operant conditioning principles to reinforce desired behaviors in children, such as rewarding good behavior and discouraging unwanted actions."

"Describe the main focus of operant conditioning."

"Operant conditioning is concerned with the acquisition and adaptation of voluntary behaviors."

"Explain the significance of positive reinforcement in behavior modification."

"Positive reinforcement involves providing a rewarding stimulus after a desired behavior, increasing the likelihood of that behavior being repeated."

"Define negative reinforcement and its role in operant conditioning."

"Negative reinforcement involves the removal of an aversive stimulus to increase the likelihood of a behavior being repeated."

"What is aversive punishment and how does it affect behavior?"

"Aversive punishment involves presenting an unpleasant consequence following a behavior, which decreases the likelihood of that behavior occurring again."

"How does response cost function in behavior modification?"

"Response cost involves removing a positive stimulus as a consequence of undesirable behavior, which aims to reduce that behavior."

"Summarize the findings related to reward devaluation in autistic children."

"Research indicates that rewards may decrease in value with repeated exposure, and children may adapt their behavior in response to changes in reward value."

"Discuss the implications of the study by Lambrechts et al. (2020) on reward devaluation in autism."

"The study explored how children with complex needs respond to devalued rewards, highlighting challenges in assessing their behavior using standard IQ or vocabulary tests."

"Critique the limitations of behaviorism as highlighted by Noam Chomsky."

"Chomsky argued that Skinner's experiments with animals do not adequately explain human language acquisition, particularly neglecting syntax and creativity."

"Explain Albert Bandura's contribution to learning theory."

"Bandura's Social Learning Theory posits that learning can occur through observation, emphasizing the role of modeling in behavior acquisition."

"Identify the key figures associated with the development of operant conditioning principles."

"Thorndike and Skinner are key figures who developed concise descriptions of operant conditioning principles."

"Discuss the broader applications of operant conditioning principles."

"Operant conditioning principles are widely applied in various fields, including education, to shape and modify behavior."

"What aspects of learning are not adequately explained by operant conditioning?"

"Aspects of language acquisition and learning by observation, as discussed by Chomsky and Bandura, are not fully explained by operant conditioning."

"What is the focus of the upcoming discussion on Freud and psychodynamic theories?"

"The upcoming discussion will explore Freud's psychodynamic theories, which contrast with behaviorist approaches to understanding human behavior."