UNIT 1 and 2 AP PSYCH

Structuralism

Structuralism

an early school of thought promoted by Wundt and Titchener; used introspection to reveal the structure of the human mind.

Functionalism

an early school of thought promoted by James and influenced by Darwin; explored how mental and behavioral processes function—how they enable the organism to adapt, survive, and flourish.

Introspection

the examination or observation of one's own mental and emotional processes.

Humanistic Psych

a historically significant perspective that emphasized the growth potential of healthy people.

Cognitive neuroscience

the interdisciplinary study of the brain activity linked with cognition (including perception, thinking, memory, and language).

Natural selection

the principle that, among the range of inherited trait variations, those contributing to reproduction and survival will most likely be passed on to succeeding generations.

Biopsychosocial approach

an integrated approach that incorporates biological, psychological, and social-cultural levels of analysis.

Nature-nurture

“Nature” means innate biological factors (namely genetics), while “nurture” can refer to upbringing or life experience more generally.

Behavioral psychology

the scientific study of observable behavior, and its explanation by principles of learning.

Biological psychology

the scientific study of the links between biological (genetic, neural, hormonal) and psychological processes. (Some biological psychologists call themselves behavioral neuroscientists, neuropsychologists, behavior geneticists, physiological psychologists, or biopsychologists.)

Cognitive psychology

the scientific study of all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating.

Evolutionary psychology

the study of the evolution of behavior and mind, using principles of natural selection.

Psychodynamic psychology

a branch of psychology that studies how unconscious drives and conflicts influence behavior, and uses that information to treat people with psychological disorders.

Socio-cultural psychology

the study of how situations and cultures affect our behavior and thinking.

Developmental psychology

a branch of psychology that studies physical, cognitive, and social change throughout the life span.

Educational psychology

the study of how psychological processes affect and can enhance teaching and learning.

Personality Psychology

the study of an individual’s characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling, and acting.

Social Psychology

the scientific study of how we think about, influence, and relate to one another.

Industrial-Organizational psychology

the application of psychological concepts and methods to optimizing human behavior in workplaces.

Human factors psychology

an I/O psychology subfield that explores how people and machines interact and how machines and physical environments can be made safe and easy to use.

Counseling psychology

a branch of psychology that assists people with problems in living (often related to school, work, or marriage) and in achieving greater well-being.

Clinical psychology

a branch of psychology that studies, assesses, and treats people with psychological disorders.

Psychiatry

a branch of medicine dealing with psychological disorders; practiced by physicians who sometimes provide medical (for example, drug) treatments as well as psychological therapy.

Positive psychology

the scientific study of human functioning, with the goals of discovering and promoting strengths and virtues that help individuals and communities to thrive.

Community psychology

a branch of psychology that studies how people interact with their social environments and how social institutions affect individuals and groups.

Psychometrics

the scientific study of the measurement of human abilities, attitudes, and traits.

Basic Research

pure science that aims to increase the scientific knowledge base.

Applied Research

the scientific study that aims to solve practical problems.

Testing effect

the scientific study that aims to solve practical problems.

Hindsight bias

the tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it. (Also known as the I-knew-it-all-along phenomenon.)

Critical thinking

thinking that does not blindly accept arguments and conclusions. Rather, it examines assumptions, assesses the source, discerns hidden values, evaluates evidence, and assesses conclusions.

The Scientific Method

A self-correcting process for asking questions and observing nature’s answers.

Theory

an explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes observations and predicts behaviors or events.

Hypothesis

a testable prediction, often implied by a theory.

Operational definition

a carefully worded statement of the exact procedures (operations) used in a research study. For example, human intelligence may be operationally defined as what an intelligence test measures.

Replication

repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic finding extends to other participants and circumstances.

Case study

a descriptive technique in which one individual or group is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles.

Naturalistic observation

observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation.

Survey

a technique for ascertaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of a particular group, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of the group.

Sampling bias

a flawed sampling process that produces an unrepresentative sample.

Random Sample

a sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion.

Correlation/Correlation Coefficient

a measure of the extent to which two variables change together, and thus of how well either variable predicts the other. / a statistical index of the relationship between two variables (from -1.0 to +1.0).

Scatterplot

a graphed cluster of dots, each of which represents the values of two variables. The slope of the points suggests the direction of the relationship between the two variables. The amount of scatter suggests the strength of the correlation (little scatter indicates high correlation).

Illusory correlation

the perception of a relationship where none exists.

Experiment/experimental group

a research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factors (independent variables) to observe the effect on some behavior or mental process (the dependent variable). By random assignment of participants, the experimenter aims to control other relevant variables. / In an experiment, the group was exposed to the treatment, that is, to one version of the independent variable.

Control group

in an experiment, the group not exposed to the treatment; contrasts with the experimental group and serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment.

Random assignment

assigning participants to experimental and control groups by chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences between the different groups.

Double-blind procedure

an experimental procedure in which both the research participants and the research staff are ignorant (blind) about whether the research participants have received the treatment or a placebo. Commonly used in drug-evaluation studies.

Placebo

[pluh-SEE-bo; Latin for “I shall please”] effect experimental results caused by expectations alone; any effect on behavior caused by the administration of an inert substance or condition, which the recipient assumes is an active agent.

Independent variable

the experimental factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied.

Dependent variable

the outcome factor; the variable that may change in response to manipulations of the independent variable.

Confounding variable

a factor other than the independent variable that might produce an effect in an experiment.

Validity

the extent to which a test or experiment measures or predicts what it is supposed to.

Descriptive statistics

numerical data used to measure and describe characteristics of groups. Includes measures of central tendency and measures of variation.

Mode

the most frequently occurring score(s) in a distribution.

Mean

the arithmetic average of a distribution, obtained by adding the scores and then dividing by the number of scores.

Median

the middle score in a distribution; half the scores are above it and half are below it.

Skewed distribution

a representation of scores that lack symmetry around their average value.

Range

the difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution.

Standard deviation

a computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score.

Normal curve

(normal distribution) a symmetrical, bell-shaped curve that describes the distribution of many types of data; most scores fall near the mean (about 68 percent fall within one standard deviation of it) and fewer and fewer near the extremes.

Inferential statistics

numerical data that allow one to generalize— to infer from sample data the probability of something being true of a population.

Statistical significance

a statistical statement of how likely it is that an obtained result occurred by chance.

Culture

the enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, values, and traditions shared by a group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next.

Informed consent

an ethical principle that research participants be told enough to enable them to choose whether they wish to participate.

Debriefing

the post-experimental explanation of a study, including its purpose and any deceptions, to its participants.

Wilhelm Wundt

established the first psychology laboratory at the University of Leipzig, Germany.

William James

was a legendary teacher-writer who authored an important 1890 psychology text. He mentored Calkins, who became a pioneering memory researcher and the first woman to be president of the American Psychological Association (APA).

Sigmund Freud

The controversial ideas of this famed personality theorist and therapist have influenced humanity’s self-understanding.

John Watson

Working with Rayner, Watson championed psychology as the science of behavior and demonstrated conditioned responses on a baby who became famous as “Little Albert.” (More about Watson’s controversial study in Module 26.)

B.F. Skinner

A leading behaviorist, Skinner rejected introspection and studied how consequences shape behavior.

Carl Rogers

Person-centered perspective suggested that the ingredients of a growth-promoting environment are genuineness, acceptance (including unconditional positive regard), and empathy.

Ivan Pavlov

work on classical conditioning laid the foundation for behaviorism, the view that psychology should be an objective science that studies behavior without reference to mental processes.

Charles Darwin

argued that natural selection shapes behaviors as well as bodies.

Dorothea Dix

“I . . . call your attention to the state of the Insane Persons confined within this Commonwealth, in cages.” American advocate on behalf of the indigent mentally ill who, through a vigorous and sustained program of lobbying state legislatures and the United States Congress, created the first generation of American mental asylums.