UNITS 3 & 4 AGP

Nation

Nation

Groups of people sharing common bonds but lacking sovereignty (Ex. Kurdish people, spanning across Turkey, Iran, Iraq and Syria)

State

An area of land with defined borders that possesses a permanent population and recognized sovereignty. (Ex. Australia)

Nation-State

States with recognized sovereignty that also shares common bonds and is culturally homogenous, possessing all elements of statehood. (Ex Japan)

Sovereignty

A state's right to exercise exclusive control over its own territory within recognized borders.

Regional Groupings

Groups challenge sovereignty through the delegation of power to a higher authority, quashing the states ability to exercise effective control

(Ex. EU)

How does the EU challenge sovereignity?

• states have to transfer power upwards

• Brexit (Jan 2020) highlights how the EU challenged the UK’s sovereignty as membership kept Britain from fully capitalising on trade with other major economies, prevented Britain from full border control as the EU can call states to accept asylum seekers, and hindered autonomy as member states cannot pass laws that contradict EU laws

Contested Borders

Internal groups within state borders challenge sovereignty by seeking independence

(Ex. Jammu and Kashmir territory disputed by Pakistan and India)

• In 2016, armed militants attacked an Indian army base in the region and killed 18 soldiers. India retaliated with strikes directed at Pakistani-controlled territory

• By revoking Article 370, India effectively withdrew the region’s autonomous privileges

• Pakistan was outraged and PM at the time, Imran Khan compared India to ‘Nazis’ and threatened to take India to the ICJ

Multilateral Resolutions

Issues requiring international cooperation in order to be successful (Ex. Paris Agreement)

• challenges sovereignty as states have to give up effective control in regards to adhering to the accord

International Criminal Court (ICC)

Independent permanent court working in conjunction with the UN

• prosecuted Ahmad Al Faqi Al Mahdi, opened their case in 2013 and found him guilty in 2016 for war crimes in Timbuktu

Challenges to ICC soveriegnity

• lack of active enforcement mechanism, relies on states to pressure non-compliant individuals

• dependent on voluntary contributions from states

• criticises for only prosecuting in African states, as until 2016 those investigated by the ICC were all from African states

• time it takes to prosecute criminals

• major powers and nuclear powers like Israel, US, China are not party to the Rome statute, thus are not within ICC jurisdiction, limiting their effectivity and making it difficult to commit to global prosecutions

The United Nations (UN)

Intergovernmental organization that aims to

• maintain international peace and security

• develop friendly relations between nations based on respect for the principle of equal rights and self determination

• achieve international cooperation

• promoting respect for human rights

• be a centre for coordinating these aims

Role of the UN

• protect HR

• Deliver humanitarian aid

• assist parties in conflict

• uphold international law

• enable dialogue between members and nations, being a mechanism to aid member states in resolving issues

UN Powers

• not binding, the general assembly is given power through its membership with 193 states

• can call on members to issue economic sanctions and stop actions e.g. 2011 Libya military intervention

• lacks active enforcement mechanism and cannot hold non-compliant states accountable

• dependent on voluntary contributions e.g. the US which gives 22%

• UNSC has great power with its permanent members

• the UNSC can also take military actions against aggression and establish peacekeeping

• limited by veto powers which can be misused

UN Challenges to sovereignty

• most UN committees only have suggestive powers, they cannot force a state to take certain actions and can only suggest it

• UNSC decisions are legally binding and they can implement sanctions and deploy peacekeepers, economic sanctions can challenge states as they can ban exports/limit imports and reduce/shut down trade relations

• can’t challenge sovereignty when resolutions fail to pass

What article allows the UN to challenge the power of a state?

Article 42

The International Monetary Fund (IMF) : AIMS

• promote international monetary cooperation

• make resources of the fund temporarily available

• facilitate the expansion of growth and trade

• promote exchange stability

• support globalisation

IMF Roles

• monitor economic policies through counter surveillance, collecting data about the states economy, holding annual meetings with IMF officials

• offer capacity development to help states grow their economic faster and avoid problems (e.g. improving the central bank)

US Power in IMF

Has the largest voting rights in the IMF, making it an instrument of US power.

China's Impact on IMF

Has weakened the IMF, as China sponsors or joins institutions in competition with the IMF such as the AIIB

Argentinian Loan Crisis

The IMF lent $5.7 billion to Agrentina

• In 2018, Argentina brought its international debt to $101 billion

• the loan in mid-2018 also had a 1.96-4.96% interest rate which garnered criticism for high interest rates

• when all policies are enforced at once, rapid prioritisation can occur leading to increased unemployment, reduced pensions and reduced salaries

• austerity measures were enforced which can increase income inequality and exacerbate wealth divides

IMF raises surcharges to ensure states do not become too reliant on them…

…however this can become detrimental as surcharges on Argentina brought its debt to 1 billion in 2020

Transnational Corporations (TNCs)

Companies whose operations extend beyond the boundaries of the state they are registered in. (Ex Amazon)

Aims of Amazon

Aims to maximize profit for investors and shareholders and to maximize sales while minimizing expenses.

Role of Amazon

provides goods and services to consumers globally

• created 13000 jobs

• operates in 16 states

Power of TNCs

Have economic power and can influence states through incentives in order to entice them to retain their investment, posing threats to a states economic sovereignty

• e.g. in 2019 the French government approved a 3% tax on large tech companies, Amazon responded by increasing its own tax on French business and seller fees by 3%

Provides employment and this economic prosperity. But uses strategies to minimise costs of production which results in workers being paid below minimum wage

• e.g. paid employees 1.82 AUD hourly in India, their cheap labour allows them to sell goods cheaper than local Indian goods

Limitations on TNCs

Can be controlled by states through legislation, taxation, and regulations, and can be held accountable by NGOs and other global actors.

Positive NGO

Medicins Sans Frontieres/Doctors Without Borders (MSF) provides assistance to populations in distress and victims of disasters and conflicts.

Roles of MSF

• Conducts independent evaluations to determine medical needs

• Rapid and effective response to emergencies

• Raise awareness on forgotten crises

• Training and capacity building

Power of MSF

Operations involve 35,000 workers in 70 states, reflecting their power and ability to achieve their aims.

MSF's Response to Ebola Outbreak

3470 in the DRC were affected with Ebola

Collaborated with the Ministry of Health in the Democratic Republic of Congo to provide care and support hospitals and healthcare centres.

• provided medical care and PPE for workers

• vaccinated those at risk

• taught effective hygiene methods to healthcare facilities

Limitations of MSF

Lacks the authority to provide assistance in all major international crises, such as the ongoing civil conflict in Syria due to a lack of government permission

Negative NGO

A terrorist movement in Nigeria aiming to overthrow the government, establish an Islamic state, and eradicate Western influence.

Aims of Boko Haram

Aims to elicit fear, establish an Islamic Caliphate, and fight against perceived enemies of Islam.

Tactics of Boko Haram

Uses kidnappings and suicide bombings to spread fear and challenge the Nigerian government's sovereignty.

Challenges to Sovereignty by Boko Haram

Their violence undermines the Nigerian government's ability to protect domestic security and spreads fear among the population.

Sovereignty in the Asia-Pacific

The legitimate ability to exercise control within recognized borders, and China's concept of sovereignty is absolute.

Idealism in Foreign Policy

A school of thought where foreign policy is influenced by practical considerations rather than ideology, such as China's 'One China' policy towards Taiwan.

Pragmatism in Foreign Policy

A school of thought where policy is influenced by practical considerations, such as China's policy of non-interference in the UN Security Council.

Hard Power

Refers to the use of military, economic, and diplomatic resources to make others follow one's will.

Soft Power

Refers to the ability to influence others through cultural, political, and economic means without using force.

Foreign Aid

Grants and loans, can increase a country's international standing and influence

• Xi Jinping pledged $60 billion USD in grants to the region in 2018

• China holds roughly 21% of all African debt

• Funds 70% of the Dijbouti railway project

China increased its international standing in Africa as 70% of Nigerians and 58% of Kenyans view it favourably compared to a median global 40% (Pew)

No african states called out the treatment of Ughyurs in Xinjiang, 25 African states backed China

Trade

States can use trade links to further national security interests, facilitate positive regional and international relationships, and improve their financial position.

• China’s bilateral trade worth 4.4 Billion

• Cambodia is an essential provider of cheap energy

• Cambodia backs China at ASEAN and using it as a spokesperson on an international level, as it shields China from criticism in the SCS

• Cambodia vetoed a statement that rendered China’s 9 dash line claim invalid at ASEAS 2016

South China Sea (SCS)

A disputed area with several states having strategic and commercial interests in the region. China claims almost the entire SCS based on the "nine-dash line" map from the 1940s

• China has been militarising the Paracel islands and deployed surface to air missiles and a J-11 fighter aircraft

• China has fully militarised at least 3 islands and planted anti missile systems

• Tried to annex the region as its own waters through its military presence

• type 22 catarman missile pictured on the base

SCS economic resource

• 11 billion barrels of oil

• 190 trillion cubic feet of natural gas

• 30% of the worlds maritime trade moves through SCS

• $5.3 trillion USD worth of goods

US and Philippines in the SCS

Challenge China’s military power in the SCS through alliances, drills and FONOP

• March 2023 the US sailed the USS destroyer missile under FONOP laws but was shot down by China who it claimed its ‘illegally’ in the region

• Both states began the largest military drills in the region with over 17000 soldiers

Taiwan Relations

China strictly adheres to the One China Policy (OCP), which considers Taiwan as an inalienable part of the People's Republic of China (PRC). China actively opposes Taiwanese independence and seeks to diplomatically isolate Taiwan. Taiwan maintains quasi-sovereignty, with its own passport, currency, and independent defense force, and receives defense capability assistance from the US.

China’s response to Taiwan

Ban on travel permits to Taiwan with visitors dropping by 57%, harming local industry

UN Security Council & Policy of Non-Interference

China is a member of the UN Security Council (UNSC) and has veto power. China traditionally follows a policy of non-interference, asserting that state sovereignty is paramount. China uses its veto power to protect its own self-interests and strengthen regional relationships, often in partnership with Russia.

Panda Policy

Diplomacy is the use of discussion & negotiation to manage relations with other global actors and further national interests.

• Oxford researches found that China loans Panda’s to states it has good relations with and retracts them if relations turn sour

• In 2011 China’s panda loan to Edinbrugh coincided with a $4 million trade deal

• Panda Tai Shan was taken back by China in 2009 after President Obama anounced arms sales to Taiwan

Political Power

Power exercised within a state, with the emphasis on the state's influence exerted through its political machinery. Political power only has domestic application and is not a foreign policy instrument. However, it can still have an effect on all national interests, both domestic and foreign, based on its effectiveness and the responses of other global actors.

Social Credit System

A national credit rating and blacklist being developed by the government of the CCP. The trustworthy will be awarded and the disobedient punished.

• acts like donating blood are rewarded

• Zhong Pei was wrongly blacklisted for ‘dishonesty’ after her father killed 2 people and could not apply to university, it took 4 months to recitfy the decision

Differing Interpretations

The differing interpretations of a situation or issue by different global actors, leading to conflicting perspectives and actions.

(Ex. CCP and Ughyurs in Xinjiang)

Cultural Power

A state’s desirable and transferable culture that states can use to achieve ends that might not be achieved through military and political means. (ex. Confucious Institutes)

• 500+ CIs globally

• 1.86 million students enrolled in classes

• 13 million Chinese learners in CIs

• Some closed in the UK and US for fears they impeded on academic freedoms in 2022

• However, 61 CIs established in African countries as of 2022

Realism

The ideology that the global political arena is made up of individual states and every state acts in its own national interests to ensure its sovereignty - when a state prioritizes its own needs over those of the global community.

Cosmopolitanism

Reflects a desire among global actors to cooperate to reach common goals and outcomes to meet challenges that are presented to the global community.

Justice

Concept of moral rightness based on ethics, law, fairness and equity that, importantly, also seeks punishment and/or compensation when these ethics are breached; presented in global politics through international systems of justice such as the ICC and ICJ which uphold international law and deter future violations.

Ethics

Seeks to address questions of morality and extends to global politics, as global actors have underlying ethics to their actions, such as realism or cosmopolitanism; global actors are guided by different ethics that relate to ideologies etc.

International Law

Body of rules established by custom or written legal agreements that are accepted as binding upon the international community. Customary international law applies to all global actors. Written legal agreements, such as treaties, are only binding to those who consent to them via explicit ratification. Ethics are enshrined IN international law.

United Nations Convention Against Torture (UNCAT)

Aims to prohibit and prevent the use of torture, cruel, inhumane or degrading treatment around the world. Signatories are obliged to prevent torture within their territories.

• 173 State parties, adding to its legitemacy

• lacks enforcement mechanism as if a state does not abide by it, there isn’t much that can be done e.g. Indonesia

UNCAT Article 2

torture must be listed as a criminal offence

UNCAT Article 3

the government shall not extradite any individual to a state where their is a possibility they may be tortured

UNCAT enforcement

States must submit a report every 4 years regarding their implementation which is reviewed by a committee of experts

• the committee works to hold states accountable for HR violations, systematically investigating reports of torture and has the ability to bring it to the attention of the UNGA

Human Rights Action Plan in New Zealand COSMOPOLITAN

In 2019, the NZ government announced their commitment to ‘show global leadership and make a positive difference on global human rights issues.’

• taken steps to reform prison system by reducing the use of tie down beds and building mental health treatment units

• promotes HR advocacy

Public Caning

Aceh implemented laws in 2013 that criminalises same sex acts, zina and adultery with a penalty of 100 lashes or 100 months in prison

• Indonesia is a UNCAT signatory but the gov allows Sharia law to prevail

• 2017, 2 men publicly canned for same sex acts

• 2022, woman flogged for adultery

Death penalty by stoning in Sudan

Implementation of the death penalty by stoning for certain crimes, such as adultery, which is considered a violation of UNCAT

• 2022, 20 y/o woman stoned to death

• However, the gov reformed some criminal laws and policies but these did not include stoning

• Sudan ratified UNCAT in August 2020 but penalties are still being implemented

AI response

Remarked that public caning amounts to torture, is inhuman e and violates the Indonesian constitution

• reported torture in 141 states as of 2017

• utilises a cosmopolitan approach

Moses Akatguba

Sentenced to death on the grounds of a confession obtained under torture

• 800,000 AI supporters signed a petition and Nigerian authorities pardoned him

United Nations Convention on the Rights of a Child (UNCRC)

Aims to protect the rights of children and ensure their healthy development, including the right to education and protection from economic exploitation.

Article 28 - Education Laws

Makes primary education compulsory for all

Article 32 - Labour Protection Laws

Protects children from economic exploitation and dangerous work

UNCRC Enforcement

Must submit reports to committee every 5 years

The committee also examiners information from NGOs and UN sources to identify areas of concern and recommend steps the state should take to improve the lives of children

Gov delegates also meet with the committee after the review

Iceland COSMOPOLITAN

Ranked first by NGO kids rights index in adhering to the UNCRC

• Children can’t work until their 13

• Children must be 16 for most other jobs

• Only allowed to do light work

• Must have 2 days off per week

Nigeria REALIST

Despite being party to the UNCRC 15 million children are engaged in child labour

• Only 25 out of 26 states adopted the UNCRC

• 47% of children aged 5-14 are working

• 30% of children do not receive compensation and work against their will

Cultural Relativism VS Universality of HR

R: human rights are not innate and are shaped by religious or cultural contexts, advocates assert that permitting law to override cultural/religious practice violates sovereignty. Aceh maintains their laws are an extension of beliefs and is more important than law

C: human rights are inalienable and guaranteed, they must prevail even if they conflict with beliefs. New Zealand keeps up with the UNCAT through prison reform, HR lies at the ‘core of its identity’

Economic Challenges to the Universality of HR

R: HR are too expensive to uphold and states cannot commit to them. President of Uganda “growth of economy should be the emphasises”. Realists give more weight to monetary advantages and tax revenue as opposed to maintaining framework to protect children from exploitation

C: HR must prevail always regardless of economic gain and Iceland’s law ensures children under 13 cannot work, maintains rights of children

1951 Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees

145 Signatories + 1 Party

• tasked with promoting international instruments for the protection of refugees

Article 3 1951 Convention

Contracting states shall apply the principles of the convention without discrimination

Article 31(1) 1951 Convention

the right of people fearing prosecution to seek protection

Article 33 1951 Convention

Non refoulment, states cannot return refugees

Realist : Australia 1951 Convention

Accepted 12000 refugees in 2015 and 1700+ in 2016. However, opened detention centres in Manus and Naru in 2012 breaching Article 31

“We’re not going to surrender sovereignty” -Peter Dutton

Cosmopolitan : Germany 1951 Convention

Resettled 890,000 asylum seekers and provided them with public housing and 216 euros a month.

• In 2022, over 200,000 asylum applications filed in Germany which is a 28% increase from 2021

Rights of Refugees Vs Economic Migrants

C: Because refugees are the most vulnerable they should be prioritised over economic migrants for resettlement and given special rights. In 2015, Sweden provided refugees with 71 crowns a day, 2 year employment etc and resettled 165,000 asylum seekers. It also experienced an economic boom with a 4.5% GDP expansion

R: states should pursue self-preservation and refugees should not poses additional rights over other migrants as economic migrants contribute to the economy. In 2016, Germany spent over 20 billion supporting refugees and 23 billion on integration. Germany spent 21.6% of its federal budget on asylum seekers

Differing approaches regarding Refugee resettlement

C: states should resettle because they share a legal and moral obligation to do so within the global community and to cooperate on the issue of PM. Germany resettled 890,000 in 2015, highlighting their cosmopolitan approach and moral obligations.

R: prioritise national security. Poland rejected calls from the EU to accept 6,000 asylum seekers, expressing that its impossible ‘not to connect’ the EUs migration policy to terrorism, demonstrating her prioritization of border security. Australia also reiterates this view, spending $350M on offshore processing annually

Crisis Diplomacy

Negotiations and actions taken by global actors in response to an immediate crisis, such as natural disasters or health crises.

(Ex. UNSC meeting 8052 in 2017, to discuss a probe into ISIS/ISIL/IS/Daesh crimes in Iraq which resulted in the UNSC resolution 2379 which established an investigation team to hold Daesh accountable for crimes)

International Cooperation

Occasions when global actors collaborate and interact with each other to pursue common goals or interests.

(Ex. Global Coalition Against Daesh)

Globalization

The acceleration and intensification of exchanges of goods, services, labor, and capital, leading to global interdependence.

Unilateralism

The policy of a state acting alone in pursuit of national interests or in response to a global crisis.

Causes of climate change

The burning of fossil fuels, deforestation, and agriculture contribute to the release of greenhouse gases and global warming.

Effects of climate change

Species extinction, rising sea levels, food insecurity, health problems, and risks to urban and rural areas.

United States' response to climate change

US is one of the largest emitters though they have increased emissions targets to reduce emissions by 50% and netzero by 2050.

• also shifted from coal to natural gas which is cheaper and reduces emissions

• however, california decided to postpone the closure of its last nuclear plant

• congress approved a $1 billion for climate financing though Biden pledged for $11.4 billion. The low provision doesn’t make up for the US’ emissions

China's response to climate change

Integrated response, aiming to cooperate with the international community to fight against climate change.

• Dismantling coal power plants and reducing overall emissions

• released Climate Change Adaptation Strategy 2035 setting long term resolutions

• China is still the worlds largest emitter, producing over 12 bullion tons

• However, it leads the world in producing solar panels and wind turbines

• invested over 500 billion in clean energy initiatives

• However, still reliant on coal power, equating to 56% of global demand

Paris Agreement Commitments by China

China pledged to peak emissions by 2030 and increase non-fossil fuel energy to 25% as part of its commitments under the Paris Agreement.

Paris Agreement 2015

The landmark Paris Agreement was reached at COP21 in 2015, aiming to strengthen the global response to climate change with the goal of limiting global temperature rise to below 2 degrees Celsius.

Lack of Enforcement Powers in the Paris Agreement

Lacks enforcement powers due to the sovereignty of states and their control over treaties. (States are the ‘masters’ of treaties)

UN Climate Summits

The UN also holds annual climate summits to encourage leaders to enhance their Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs) and work towards achieving net zero emissions by 2050.

Non-State Actor Response to Climate Change

Amnesty International (AI) sees climate change as a danger to human rights and aims to stop global temperature rise while ensuring climate action respects human rights and promotes equality.

AI's People's Summit on Climate, Rights, and Human Survival

AI organized the People's Summit to advocate for human rights-based solutions to climate change and ensure people's participation in decisions regarding their futures.

AI's Report on Illegal Cattle Farming in the Amazon

AI released a report on illegal cattle farming in Brazil's Amazon rainforest, highlighting the human rights risks and environmental impacts.

challenges to effective climate change resolutions

lifestyle, culture, ideology

lifestyle

fossil fuels are central to the current human lifestyle and essential for energy, transport, agriculture and manufacturing

• fossil fuel companies spend $700 billion