Nation

Groups of people sharing common bonds but lacking sovereignty

Shared common bonds such as history, language, and culture; can also span over multiple states but are in one geographical area (e.g. Kurdish people are a nation spanning over parts of Turkey, Iran and Iraq)

State

An area of land with defined borders that possesses a permanent population and recognised sovereignty.

Not necessarily homogenous. (Ex. Australia, Norway)

Nation-State

State with recognised sovereignty that also shares common bonds and is culturally homogenous, possessing all elements of statehood

(Ex. Japan, with a 98.5% Japanese population (Diversity Abroad) but is still a state)

Sovereignty

A state's right to exercise exclusive control over its own territory within recognised borders.

State sovereignty can be challenged internally by a secessionist group or externally by a state invading another.

Challenges to Sovereignty

Regional Groupings

RGs challenge sovereignty through the delegation of power to a higher authority. The European Union is an RG with 27 member states having transferred decision-making powers in trade and agriculture. 19 member states also share a common currency, the Euro.

The EU Court of Justice, (CJEU) ensures states and EU institutions interpret and abide by EU law. For instance, in July 2021, the CJEU ruled that a chamber established by Poland in 2017 that disciplined judges, violated EU law. Member states cannot pass contradicting laws and while they are ‘masters’ of treaties they transfer sovereignty to the EU by abiding by EU law the EU is an RG where members have transferred the most sovereignty to compared to any other regional organisation elsewhere.

Brexit demonstrates how RGs can challenge sovereignty and how member states can choose to leave RGs, the EU challenged the UK by controlling and restricting the policy and decision-making of the state. The UK officially withdrew in January 2020, the UK lost benefits from the union and lost access to the European single market. However, EU membership kept Britain from fully capitalising on trade with other major economies and Brexit allows Britain to have full border control and autonomy regarding its own laws and regulations without the rest of having counterintuitive policy enforced.

Contested Borders

Internal groups within state borders challenge sovereignty by seeking independence. Sovereignty is also challenged externally when states invade the territory of another. CBs and conflict can be devastating often leading to land loss and casualties.

Following the 1947 partition of India and Pakistan, the princely state of Jammu and Kashmir was claimed by both states and the dispute is still ongoing.

In 2014, hopes of peaceful negotiation were speculated when Prime Minister Modi invited the Prime Minister of Pakistan to attend his inauguration. However, the two later cancelled peace talks between ministers after the Pakistani official met with Kashmiri separatist leaders. (NY Times, 2014)

In 2016, armed militants attacked an Indian army base and killed 18 soldiers. The Indian military responded with strikes directed at terrorist camps inside Pakistani-controlled territory- which diminished the possibilities of peace as the states engaged in violent protests and altercations throughout the following year. (NY Times 2017)

The UN identified South Asia as an epicentre of terrorism and religious extremism, thus piquing their interest in restoring stability and minimizing potential nuclear war. (Global Conflict Tracker 2022)

In 2019, India revoked Article 370 of its constitution which took away the autonomous privilege granted to the region. Modi asserted the move necessary to integrate the region into the rest of India and thousands of troops were deployed placing the area in lockdown. (BBC 2019)

On February 6th 2023, US Pakistani Ambassador, Masood Khan called for a resolution to the dispute stating the current state of affairs in the region is ‘abysmal’. Which demonstrates future possibilities of peace. (The Tribune 2023)

Multilateral Resolutions

Issues requiring an MR require international cooperation in order to be successful.

The landmark 2015 Paris Agreement adopted by nearly every state aims to address climate change and its negative impacts. The accord aims to reduce global greenhouse emissions in order to limit global temperature increases and includes commitments from all major emitting nations to cut pollution and strengthen commitment over time.

The PA has 193 signatories alongside the EU as of 2023, ensuring that states individually set goals in the aims of not allowing global warming to rise.

However, some view this as an imposition of sovereignty because signatories give up ‘effective control’ of their state in regards to adhering to the accord.

International Criminal Court (ICC)

Independent permanent court working in conjunction with the UN.

• A court of last resort only prosecutes and investigates when states are unwilling/unable

• Educates the globe on its purpose

• Deter would be criminals and offer rehabilitation for guilty persons

• Provide victims with justice

• Establish historical record

• Gives a voice to victims and provides justice

The ICC aims to ensure accountability, promote international peace and security, assist national judiciaries in investigation and prosecution (allowing states to investigate and prosecute first) and acts as a deterrent.

Ahmad Al Faqi Al Mahdi

• Tried for war crimes, for deliberately attacking religious and historical buildings in Timbuktu and found guilty on the 27th of September 2016

• ICC opened an investigation 16th of January in 2013, a warrant was issued on the 18th September 2015

• Al Mahdi pleaded guilty on the 26th of September 2015

• On the 24th of August the ICC delivered the verdict, Al Mahdi was found guilty and given 9 years in prison and found liable for 2.7 million euros for individual and collective reparations

• Al Mahdi was referred by the government of Mali, for compensation to the community of Timbuktu

Challenges

The ICC is dependent on voluntary contributions from states. Controversially, some accuse the ICC of prosecuting primarily on the African continent which is supported by the fact all individuals investigated by the ICC until January 2016 were heads of rebel or state groups in various African states.

The ICC also takes time to prosecute criminals. For instance, Al Mahdi’s crimes were committed in 2012 but he was sentenced by the ICC in 2016. The ICC is also restricted by budgeting constraints as it relies on voluntary state contributions.

Major powers like China, Russia, India and the United States are also not part of the ICC and have not signed the Rome Statute- limiting ICC jurisdiction and making it difficult for the ICC to commit to global prosecutions.

Furthermore, the absence of an active enforcement mechanism means the ICC relies on states themselves to pressure non-compliant individuals and cannot compel them to comply with ICC demands. States can choose not to comply with the ICC, which limits their effectiveness.

The United Nations

The UN is an intergovernmental organisation, that aims to

• Maintain international peace and security

• Develop friendly relations between nations based on respect for the principle of equal rights and self-determination of peoples

• Achieve international cooperation in solving international problems of an economic/social/cultural or humanitarian nature

• Promoting respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms

• Be a centre for coordinating the actions of nations in the attainment of these aims

Role

• Protect HR

• Deliver humanitarian aid

• Assist parties in conflict to make peace and create the conditions to allow peace to hold

• Uphold international law

• Provide legitimacy to state autonomy

• Promote sustainable development

• Enables dialogue between members & hosts negotiations, allowing it to be a mechanism to aid member states in resolving issues w/ one another

• Holds the membership of practically the entire global community, allowing it to reach and broadcast issues of international concern

Powers

The UN’s decisions are not binding and the General Assembly is given power through its membership with 193 states. The UN can also call on member states to issue economic sanctions and stop actions (ex. 2011 UN military intervention in Libya). Without an active enforcement mechanism, the UN cannot hold non-compliant states accountable.

• The UN is also dependent on voluntary contributions from states and is restricted by limited funding. Its largest contributor is the US with 22% in 2020. Though the US fell behind on payments, it announced that it paid $300 million of its $1.1 billion to the UN in 2021.

However, the UN Security Council (UNSC) exercised great power with its permanent members (US, UK, Russia, China and France). The UNSC can also take military action against aggression and establish peacekeeping as well as develop and codify international laws.

Legislation is also limited by veto power, as UNSC members can use veto power to stop laws and pertain the laws to their own interests which makes it difficult to achieve equality. In addition, states from Africa are underrepresented meaning the UNSC has disproportionate representation.

Challenges to Sovereignty

• Most UN committees only have suggestive powers, they can’t actively force a state to take certain actions- only suggest it (ex committee on elimination of discrimination against women: guides decision making and gives recommendations; cannot force decisions)

• UNSC decisions ARE legally binding, as they can implement sanctions and deploy peacekeepers; economic sanctions can challenge state sovereignty as they can ban exports and limit imports and reduce or shut down trade relations with the intended target; (ex 2017 North Korean economic sanctions limited import & export)

• UNSC has the ability to challenge the power of the state (through article 42) by taking military action through air/sea/land to maintain peace/security (seen through the Libya intervention)

• Can’t challenge sovereignty when resolutions fail to pass (if a resolution fails to pass due to veto power)

The Libyan Crisis (January 2020)

Military commander Khalifa Haftar launched an offensive in Tripoli, to which the UN responded quickly convening talks between parties to find a solution. However, the Berlin conference actually failed to include Libya. The collective decision to respond with a ceasefire also meant that the solution was political and not military. Despite UN involvement, the decision was not facilitated by the UNSC, meaning it is not legally binding- a UNSC decision would be more effective.

However, veto power could have obstructed possible resolution due to the fact Russia supplies arms to mercenaries in Libya.

In spite of this, the UNC also facilitated political dialogue in November 2020 in Tunis. The UN brought warring parties together and created agreement, facilitating political dialogue between states and addressing global issues.

Adversely, the UN’s power is limited because it cannot enforce resolutions- it can only facilitate them. So parties must be willing to cooperate because they cannot be compelled to follow commitments. In addition, the UN could be viewed as threatening Libyan sovereignty and security because its intervention may suggest Libya is incapable of handling policy and challenges without external assistance.

The International Monetary Fund (IMF)

The IMF aims to

• Promote international monetary cooperation

• Make resources of the fund temporarily available

• Facilitate the expansion of growth and trade

• Promote exchange stability

• Support globalisation

Roles

• To monitor economic policies through country surveillance collecting data about the state’s economy, annual meetings with the IMF officials and advice by the IMF about the way the state is running its economic affairs.

• To offer capacity development to help low & middle income countries grow their economies faster and avoid problems. (How to improve the central bank, gather stats make the tax system run effectively, run the states finance ministry effectively).

Powers

Power from financial assets – the financial capacity ($17 million) available to loans to its members experiencing balance of payments difficulties – allowing the IMF to carry out its roles of surveillance, lending & capacity development. The key sources of its power is derived from the conditions that accompany the loans. People may need to meet fiscal targets or dismantle or create institutions.

The IMF imposed conditions on the $5.7 billion loan to Argentina, advising them to cut costs, taxing exports, increasing the wealth tax, scaling back inefficient energy subsidies wealth tax, scaling back inefficient energy subsidies reprioritising capital spending. Money given enables the IMF to help influence states.

Limits to Power

The US has the largest voting rights, making the IMF an instrument of US power.

The rise of China as an economic power has weakened the IMG, as China has sponsored or joined several institutions in competition with the IMF such as the AIIB with over 74 states.

Challenges to Sovereignty

In 2015, the IMF lent a $5.7 billion loan to Argentina with conditions imposed. This limited flexibility to create economic and social policies in response to the situation.

The IMF has lent money to states who cannot pay it back. For instance, in 2018, Argentina brought its international debt to $101 billion.

The IMF can also be criticised for high-interest rates, the $50 billion loan provided to Argentina in mid-2018 had a 1.96-4.96% interest rate attached.

Furthermore, when all politics are enforced at once, rapid prioritisation can occur leading to increased unemployment, reduced pensions and reduced salaries. When high tax and reduced government spending was introduced in Argentina, health and education programs were cut along with the salaries of public servants. Other austerity measures such as raised export tax make it difficult for economic stability to be reached and unfairly impact poorer populations. In addition, austerity measures can increase income inequality and exacerbate wealth divides. In 2019, 25.4% of Argentinian households lived below the poverty line. Citizens also accuse the IMF of being secretive in loan conditions which triggers extreme public backlash. Many protests occurred in Argentina from 2018-19, many became violent and the maritime union strike in June 2019 suspended grain activity.

The IMF raises surcharges to ensure states do not become too reliant on the IMF, however, this can become detrimental as surcharges imposed on Argentina amounted to US $1 billion in 2020.

Transnational Corporations - Amazon

TNCs are companies whose operations and investments extend beyond the boundaries of the state in which it is registered in.

Aims

• One of amazons aim is to maximise their profit for both the investors and their shareholders

• The second aim of amazon is to maximize sales and minimise expenses.

• Through increased market share, TNCS can grow their profit and offer their largest owners rewards.

• For example as of 2017, Amazon made a total revenue 0f $135.9 billion and $2.4 billion in profit

Role

Amazon employs significant numbers of employees in both developed and developing states, as Amazon created 130,000 jobs in the US alone and is operating in 16 different states worldwide in 2022.

The role of Amazon is to provide goods and services to consumers across the globe.

Power

• The power of TNCS has risen in tandem with the increase in the number of influential companies globally. The power of TNCS is demonstrated through the economic power they command.

• States are often willing to provide TNCS with economic or political incentives in order to entice them to retain their investment- posing threat to a state’s economic sovereignty. This is an example of when Amazon challenged state sovereignty, (e.g. in 2019 the French government approved a 3% tax on large tech companies by which Amazon responded by increasing its own tax on French businesses and increasing seller fee by 3%.

• TNCS have power as states rely on, for example, Amazon to provide employment in all states and economic prosperity to the state. Amazon uses strategies to minimize costs of production which results in workers being paid below minimal wage. The average hourly rate for an Amazon employee in the US is $15

• 1,541,000 workers in 2022

• Every second, Amazon records nearly $4,722 in sales

• Amazon has been a pioneer in adopting emerging technologies and practices, like the use of robots to streamline the efficiency of e-commerce fulfilment operations or the implementation of AI applications across logistics, warehousing, and distribution.

• Amazon has always prioritized ensuring an excellent customer experience.

Limitations

• A limitation of TNCS power is that states have the capacity to control them through legislation and judicial decisions of their courts.

• They also have a limitation to their power, as states have control through taxation tariffs and regulations.

• Another limitation is that NGOs and other global actors can attempt to hold TNCS accountable for their actions. For example in 2017 amazon. Ca was required by the competition bureau to pay a $1 million penalty, plus a $100,000 in cost, overpricing practices for failing to provide to ‘truth in advertising.

Challenges to Sovereignty

TNCS also challenge state sovereignty by wielding political power to influence states and also have directly employed government officials, participated in policy making and bribed political parties or government with financial contributions.

Amazon can challenge the sovereignty of India by offering lower prices as Indian Amazon employees are paid $1.82 AUD per hour. Amazon also takes up space in the economic market, as Amazon in India has more than 60 fulfilment centres and more than 25 specialised sites dedicated to Amazon. Amazon is across 10 states in India, covering a total area of over 3 million square feet with a storage capacity of close to 10 million cubic feet. This challenged India’s sovereignty as it impacted local Indian businesses as Amazon sells its products for cheaper because its products are produced in unethical ways.

Furthermore, the average Amazon hourly rate for an employee is $1.8 AUD. This challenges sovereignty as Amazon uses cheap labour to produce their goods, allowing them to sell their goods for a cheaper price than local Indian stalls and shops.

In 2017 Amazon in India was forced into a hasty apology for selling a doormat bearing the Indian flag and also a picture of a skateboard bearing the Hindu god Ganesha. This challenged India’s sovereignty as it disrespected their culture, and didn’t align with the views and beliefs of the Indian people. Amazon created products that didn’t align with Indian beliefs and views but continued to do so as it would increase their profits and economy. As of 2022, Amazon Marketplace reported the highest revenue of 214.62 billion Indian rupees.

Positive NGO- Medicins Sans Frontieres/Doctors Without Borders

An NGO founded by a group of doctors, nurses and humanitarians in 1971. MSF aims to

• Provide assistance to a population in distress to victims of natural or man-made disasters and to victims of armed conflict

• Observe neutrality and impartiality in the name of universal medical ethics and the right to humanitarian assistance

Roles

• Conducts independent evaluations to determine medical needs and assess what assistance is needed

• Rapid and effective responses to emergencies

• Raise awareness on forgotten crises and/or call out policies that restrict access to medical care

• Training and capacity building

Powers

The total size of MSF operations reflects the organisation's power and ability to achieve its aims; 35,000 workers are active in 70 states worldwide.

2018-2020 Ebola Outbreak

The MSF collaborated with the Ministry of Health in Mambasa and Ituri provinces to provide care. 3470 people in the Democratic Republic of Congo were infected with Ebola- the spread was exacerbated by displacement, human trafficking across the Ugandan border etc. This insecurity prevented MSF workers from safely accessing people in some regions, and the MSF had to withdraw in certain areas due to attacks on facilities.

The MSF supported general hospitals and local healthcare centres by identifying risks early and using effective hygiene methods to minimise the outbreak as well as vaccinating those at risk.

MSF also conducted clinical trials, researched issues, provided medical care, advocated for better health policies and ensured healthcare workers used PPE.

In contrast, the MSF has not completely fulfilled its aims. This is because the MSF lacks the authority to give assistance to all major international crises. For instance, despite repeated requests, MSF has not received permission from the Syrian government to provide medical aid required by the ongoing civil conflict that began in 2011. The only reason the MSF has been able to provide assistance in the Northern region of Syria is because they were able to open three hospitals in the opposition-held areas. However, assistance in these areas remains well below the level of need.

Negative NGO - Boko Haram

Global terrorist movements engage in politically activated violence to achieve their aims. BH is an Islamist Separatist movement based in Northern Nigeria, which aims to establish Sharia law and an Islamic state.

Aims

• Overthrow Nigerian government

• Elicit fear

• Establish the Islamic Caliphate

• Eradicate Western influence

• Fight against perceived enemies of Islam

Their tactics include kidnappings and suicide bombings. They lack sovereignty and do not occupy a permanent position in the world, thus they resort to violence.

By conducting over 2000 kidnappings between 2009 and 2014 and also carrying out 750 attacks using explosives, bombs, and firearms BH has been able to undermine the Nigerian Government as a protector of domestic security; by spreading fear terrorist groups challenge sovereignity. Between October and December 2020, 1436 schoolchildren and 17 teachers were abducted.

BH utilises fears, propaganda and weapons to maintain its power. In conjunction with the Nigerian military, the Multinational Joint Task Forces (MNJTF) struggled to regain territory from BH. They also found a 176% increase in terrorism-related deaths as a result of BH, and the Nigerian government declared a state of emergency on the 27th of January in 2021.

Sovereignty in the Asia-Pacific

Legitimate or widely recognised ability to exercise effective control of territory within recognized borders;

China’s concept of sovereignty is absolute, meaning it cannot be affected by globalization or interference by other global actors.

Idealism

A school of thought in which foreign policy is influenced above all else by practical considerations, as opposed to a particular ideology.

E.g. China’s ‘One China’ relationship to Taiwan

Pragmatism

A school of thought in which policy is influenced primarily by practical considerations, as opposed to a particular ideology.

E.g. China’s policy of non-interference in the UNSC

Hard Power (ex. military, economic, diplomatic)

‘The ability to use the carrots (incentive) and sticks (coercion) of economic and military might to make others follow your will’ - Nye 1990

Typically associated w/ military force, resting primarily on threats and inducements- including coercive approaches to international political relations; relies on tangible power resources (ex. Armed forces). Exercised through coercion or incentive.

Soft Power (ex. cultural, political, economic)

‘To want what you want’ - Nye 1990

Typically associated w/ a degree of voluntarism, on the part of the actor actively being persuaded as opposed to coerced. The desired outcome is gained without the use of force; state activities need legitimacy in order to enhance soft power; States like China experience difficulty utilising soft power b/c of their authoritarian political system

Foreign Aid

Increases international standing (e.g. humanitarian grants, loans, AIIB, infrastructure).

In 2018, Xi Jinping pledged $60 Billion USD in grants, loans and investments to the African region at the forum on Chinese-African cooperation. As of 2021, China holds roughly 21% of all African debt, their two-way trade amounts to US $170 Billion and China has been Africa’s largest trading partner for the past 10 years. In addition, Chinda funds 70% of the Djibouti Railway Project in Ethiopia.

China effectively increased its international standing in Africa, with 70% of Nigerians and 58% of Kenyans viewing China favourably compared to a global 40% median. (Pew Research Center) China providing aid also contributes to its renewal as a state and allows it to be recognised as a global leader. No African states participated in the calling out of the treatment of Ugyhurs in Xinjiang, in fact- at a 2020 UN meeting, 25 African states backed China.

Trade

The manipulation of the exchange of goods, services, labour and capital to influence the actions of another global actor. Staes can use trade links to further national security interests, facilitate positive regional relationships, international relationships and better the state financially.

China’s bilateral trade with Cambodia was worth 4.4 Billion USD in 2015, Cambodia is an essential provider of cheap energy.

China however, also has political motivations to trade. By establishing a close relationship with Cambodia, China hopes to use Cambodia as a ‘spokesperson’ on an international level. For instance, Cambodia consistently shields China from ASEAN (a regional grouping) over its criticism of China’s use of military power in the South China Sea region. In 2016, Cambodia vetoed a statement from an ASEAN court that declared China’s 9 dash-line claim to the SCS invalid.

Military Power

Military power is the use of a state’s military to exert influence over the actions of other global actors; can be done through the use of force OR threat of force

China utilises military power to pursue its national security interest by maintaining territorial integrity over Taiwan and defacto sovereignty of the South China Sea (SCS). China hinders its regional relationships by employing such use of hard power. It pursues economic avenues through access to resources in the SCS.

South China Sea (SCS)

SCS is a disputed area over several states that have great strategic and commercial interest in the area. It has been almost entirely claimed by China based on an obscure 1940s map known as the ‘nine dash line’.

China continues to utilise military power to ensure defacto sovereignty.

Rival claimants base their claims in sovereignty through their ‘exclusive economic zones’ (EEZ) maritime rights on the UN ‘Convention of the Law of the Sea’ (which China itself ratified in 1996).

At this point in time the US and rival states challenge China’s claim to the SCS by entering disputed waters to conduct freedom of navigation patrols.

The militarization of the SCS has also intensified since 2012. Not only has China built artificial islands in the SCS, but it has also embarked on extensive militarization of these islands, The fortification of these islands with buildings, radars and aircraft hangers allows China to further protect both the region and its claim to the region.

Since 2014, China has been militarizing (The Guardian 2022) the Paracel Islands, where it deployed surface-to-air missiles and stationed J-11 fighter aircraft. A Chinese bomber aircraft landed on the Paracels for the first time in 2018. A similar militarization of the Spratly Islands has continued at pace. In 2022, the head of the U.S. Indo-Pacific Command stated that China had fully militarized at least three of its artificial islands in the Spratly Island chain, (The Guardian 2022) noting the presence of fighter aircrafts as well as anti-ship and anti-aircraft missile systems. Chinese maritime militia vessels are also increasingly active in the SCS.

China has tried to effectively annex the whole SCS region as its territorial waters by establishing a strong military presence of a navy, coast guards, maritime malitia, armed fishing fleet etc. (ABC 2023) In November 2022, new radars, aircrafts and military camps were pictured on the artificial Chinese islands. Anti-ship missiles and a type 22 catamaran missile was also pictured. These images demonstrate how China is continuing to use military power to reinforce its claim over the SCS and achieve national security through territorial integrity as well as expand influence beyond mainland borders. Many analysts assert that China has the upper hand and if military confrontations were to occur China has a clear advantage in the SCS.

Despite this, states such as the US and the Phillippines continue to challenge China’s military power and control in the SCS, through alliances, drills and previously mentioned freedom of navigations operations (FONOP). These FONOPs include a recent March 2023 sailing of a guided missile destroyer, the USS Milius in waters surrounding the Paracel islands. China consequently claimed the UD destroyer was driven out of the waters after it ‘illegally’ entered the area. However, the US Navy released a statement refuting the claim, asserting that the USS Milius is conducting routine operations in the SCS and was not expelled. They remarked the ‘US will continue to fly, sail and operate wherever international law allows’ (The Guardian 2023)

Furthermore, in April 2023 the USA and Philippines began some of the largest ever military drills in the SCS which included the use of 17000 soldiers. China is against intensifying US deployment to the region, foreign ministry spokesperson Mao Ning stated in a briefing in Beijing that it would ‘only lead to more tensions and less peace and stability in the region’ (The Guardian 2023).

SCS is a vital economic resource, 11 billion barrels of oil, 190 trillion cubic feet of natural gas and 10 per cent of the world’s fisheries. Of greatest value however, $5.3 trillion USD worth of goods (30% of global maritime trade) moves through the sea yearly.

China, like all other countries involved in the dispute benefits from the free flow of goods between Asia and the rest of the world, not seeking to alter the trade routes. However, the US and other states would still rather not allow Beijing the ability to hold the world’s economy hostage. China however distrusts international intentions as the history of Western imperialism looms large, seeking control of perceived sovereign territory. National Security as China also does not want to allow itself to be held hostage by the US or its allies due to importance of the sea

Ergo, it is clear that while China has successfully maintained national security, territorial integrity and economic prosperity it has done so at the cost of regional relationships due to the threat of retailiation from the US and other states.

Taiwan Relations

China governs strictly with the One China Policy (OCP) which details the island of Taiwan as an inalienable part of the CCP ruled the Peoples Republic of China (PRC). China seeks to actively oppose Taiwanese independence, Taiwan maintains quasi-sovereignty with its own passport, currency and independent defence force it holds de facto statehood. It is worth noting that Taiwan receives defence capability assistance from the US.

To punish Taiwan’s autonomous ambitions, in 2019, China imposed a ban on individual travel permits to Taiwan, with visitors to Taiwan dropping by 57%, harming local industry as Chinese travellers are “Taiwan’s top customers”. This move was designed to repress the “Taiwan independence” activities led by the DDP (Democratic Progressive Party), whilst allowing the Kuomintang party (who seek friendlier ties with China) to capitalise off the unrest in the upcoming election. The move failed and the DPP was re-elected.

Trade has been utilised by China within the 2013 Cross-Strait Service Trade Agreement (CSSTA). This was done in order to promote the renegade islands economic dependence and increase China’s control over borders, and prevent threats of separatism, extremism and terrorism; Since 1991 $188 billion has been invested from Taiwan to the mainland and 42% of adults within Taiwan have been increasing economic ties with mainland, which in turn, increases economic dependence on China (Pew Research).

Moreover, at this point in time, Taiwan is formally recognised as the Republic of China by 15 states. Other states that do not have official diplomatic relations with Taiwan instead establish De Facto embassies (ex. The Australian Office in Taipei).

In addition, the Trump administration in 2017 updated President Jinping that the US recognised Taiwan as part of China. Contrary to this, the Trump administration also deepened its ties with Taiwan by opening and embassy in Taipei. This controversial move is one China viewed as a severe violation of its OCP policy. China’s OCP policy is one that alienates Taiwan from the mainland, which can further the desire for Taiwanese independence.

Diplomatic Power

Power accured by states via relationships with others; essentially, its the ability of a state to influence global actors by way of discussion and negotiation (ex. through international standing, alliances etc)

Forbye, China’s OCP policy also diplomatically isolates Taiwan. It is essential to note that states seeking diplomatic relations with China must break ties with Taiwan and recognise the OCP policy as rightful. Due to the potential for lucrative trade, investment and generous aid, many states comply with this notion. In November 2020, China denied Taiwan’s application for ‘observer status’ at the World Health Assembly, which is the UN’s World Health Organisation’s decision making body. Despite Taiwan’s early success in combatting COVID-19, the PRC argued that it only had the right to represent China at the UN due to its legitimate statehood. China actively works to poach Tawiwan’s few remaining diplomatic allies via economic incentives such as generous aid packages. For instance, Panam cut ties with Taiwan in 2017 and switched diplomatic allegiance to China. China’s efforts clearly serve a diplomatic purpose, namely to isolate Taiwan from the international community by incentivising states to deny Taiwanese statehood.

China sources its diplomatic power as its a P5 member of the UNSC. This authority grants it veto power, additionally, China uses its P5 membership to manipulate the UNSC to fulfil its own self-interests. China also maintains membership of several prominent multilateral organisations such as the G20, Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation and UN Human Rights Council.

UN Security Council & Policy of Non-Interference

Traditionally, China maintains a policy of non-interference, asserting that state sovereignty is paramount. China often employs veto power to take a stand on actions that it feels infringe on this notion. In 2022, China used its veto power in few occasions in support of other states. However, it did not veto alone, instead preferring to do so ‘in partnership’ with Russia. (In turn, strengthening regional relationships with Russia)

In May 2022, China and Russia used veto power to block a UNSC statement expressing concern at the violence and humanitarian situation in Myanmar. Council diplomats stated that both states objected to parts of the text, however, China’s UN mission said it proposed ‘slow’ progress rather than ‘limited’ progress in its Five Point Consensus. This action saw criticism from the UK which drafted the agreement. UK officials stated that Beijing was asking ‘too much’, leading to the collapse of negotiations. (The Diplomat 2022)

China and Russia also vetoed a proposed increase in sanctions on North Korea in response to its nuclear-capable missile systems development. China’s ambassador argued that the new sanctions on North Korea would not stop its weapons program and may instead increase its levels of testing, as well as putting further strains on the state as it battles the effects of COVID-19. This highlights how China views its role in the UNSC to be the responsible peacemaker. The US criticised the veto by China (and Russia) with its ambassador, Linda Thomas-Greenfield, stating that ‘the vetoes today are dangerous. Those members today have taken a stance that not only undermines the Security Council’s previous action to which they have committed but also undermines our collective security.

Additionally, China and Russia vetoed a proposed increase in sanctions on North Korea in response to its nuclear-capable missile systems development. China’s ambassador argues that new sanctions will not stop North Korean weapons programs and may instead increase its level of testing- as well as putting further strains on the state as it battles the effects of COVID-19. This highlights how China views its role in the UNSC to be a responsible peacemaker. The US criticised the veto by China, Ambassador Greenfield stated that ‘vetoes today are dangerous. Those members [China and Russia] have taken stance[s] that undermine UNSC’s previous actions [and in turn undermined collective security].’ (CNN 2022)

Panda Policy

The use of discussion & negotiation to manage relations with other global actors and further national interests.

Pandas are an endangered species unique to China and desired by Zoos around the world. Beijing has found a way to turn Pandas into a political tool to use and reinforce international relationships.

Oxford researchers found a correlation between China’s international Panda loans and international trade deals for valuable resources/technology. In essence, China loans Pandas to the states it believes it can benefit from politically or economically, and will withdraw loans from states that contradict its political agenda. For instance, in 2011, China’s Panda loan to Edinburgh coincided with a $4 million trade deal signed for salmon, renewable energy and land rovers. Antithetically, in 2009, China refused to extend the stay of panda Tai Shan in the US, after President Obama announced arms sales to Taiwan- ultimately proving China utilises ‘panda’ diplomacy to further international relations and economic prosperity.

Political Power

Power exercised within a state, with the emphasis on the state's influence exerted through its political machinery. Political power only has domestic application and is not a foreign policy instrument. However, it can still have an effect on all national interests, both domestic and foreign, based on its effectiveness and the responses of other global actors.

China uses political power against many of its own citizens which brings much international attention, commentary and criticism.

Social Credit System

The social credit system is a national credit rating and blacklist being developed by the government of the CPC. It calls for a unified record so that individuals, businesses, and institutions may be tracked and evaluated for trustworthiness. The trustworthy will be awarded and the disobedient punished

For instance, a good SC system rating can offer priority health care or deposit-free renting of public housing; a negative one can be someone from trains or flights. In November 2022 government agencies collectively released a draft law on the Establishment of the SC system, the first attempt to systematically codify the system and guide future implementation. It is closely related to and incorporates mass surveillance systems such as Skynet.

In addition, some people consider the system good since some actions like donating blood are rewarded with faster travel applications, discounts on energy bills and better interest rates. Furthermore, in 2017 over 1,100 government officials were on restricted lists for corruption according to state media organisation People’s Daily. As of 2022, 2.56 million have been restricted from flights and 300,000 deemed untrustworthy by Chinese courts. [2022 Technology Review]

0n the contrary, the SC system is not foolproof. In 2015, 16-year-old Zhong Pei was blacklisted for ‘dishonesty’ after her father killed two people. It took Pei 4 months to dispute the decision and get her name off the list in order to enrol in university. However, the system isn’t necessarily disliked by citizens who liken it to Uber's rating scheme. “I feel like in the past 6 months peoples behaviour is gotten better” [Froeign Policy 2019]

Ultimately, the system in its current state is not entirely fool-proof, it does seem to be succeeding in altering the behaviour of citizens in a positive and not necessarily suppressive way. Government officials have also been held accountable as well as citizens.

Differing Interpretations

45% of the Xinjiang population favours secession from mainland China. The autonomous region belongs to the Ugyhur ethnic group.

China views this as a threat to national security and therefore employs hard power to suppress the spread of Islam and ensure national security. The CCP government declared ‘three evils’ which are ‘terrorism, religious extremism and separatism.’ It also believes the Uyghurs threaten the ‘Chinese Dream’ of a singular, ‘harmonious China/’ Thus, the CCP banned beards, passed state-sanctioned copies of the Qur’an and created resettlement programs to increase the Han population in Xinjiang. In 2018, the CCP passed new regulations for ‘re-education’ centres, Jinping declared that we must ‘catch terrorists with nets…spreading from the sky.’

Contrastingly, Uyghurs believe they can coexist with China whilst being free to practice their faith and maintain their cultural identity. The Ugyhurs actively protested China’s actions. The Urumqi Riots in 2009 killed 200 Uyghurs. The Ugyhurs have also accused the Government of severe human rights violations, such as forced sterilisation, physical abuse, and ‘cultural genocide’ perpetuated by the CCP. (BBC)

Cultural Power

A state’s desirable and transferable culture that states can use to achieve ends that might not be achieved through military and political means.

A soft power that is measured via unique aspects of culture and history, investment into cultural industry or propaganda. (ex. Hollywood)

Confucius Institutes

Non-profit public institutions affiliated with the Ministry of education of the People's Republic of China. There are reportedly more than 500 CIs worldwide

Confucius institutes have increased the number of students studying Chinese, in 2018, 1.86 million students were enrolled in face-to-face classes, 810 thousand more than the previous year. In 2021 via Confucius institutes and classrooms there are 13 million global Chinese language learners. This means that China has somewhat increased its view of itself in a positive way. CIs allow China to project cultural values such as language and festivals.

The Chinese government has invested USD1 billion in establishing 500 of these institutes. Only Chinese-approved teachers teach in the CIs, meaning that only a positive view of China is projected.

In contrast, CIs have not necessarily altered overall perceptions of China. There are increasing concerns that because CIs are funded by the Chinese Government, that CIs interfere with academic freedoms and are able to pressure universities to censor topics and be used as propaganda vehicles. Hence, many universities have terminated contracts with CIs such as the University of Chicago and the University of Kansas. In addition, in 2022 the UK made commitments to close several CIs, because they ‘pose a threat to civil liberties in many universities’ (The Hill 2022). These continued closures and contract terminations highlight that while China has attempted to offset its use of hard power and build its reputation positively, its actions and desire for control have limited its attempt to use soft power.

Realism (ex. free trade agreements, the trans-pacific partnership)

The ideology that the global political arena is made up of individual states and every state acts in its own national interests to ensure its sovereignty - when a state prioritizes its own needs over those of the global community.

Cosmopolitanism

Reflects a desire among global actors to cooperate to reach common goals and outcomes to meet challenges that are presented to the global community

Justice (ex. ICC, ICJ)

Concept of moral rightness based on ethics, law, fairness and equity that, importantly, also seeks punishment and/or compensation when these ethics are breached; presented in global politics through international systems of justice such as the ICC and ICJ which uphold international law and deter future violations

Ethics (ex. R2P)

Seeks to address questions of morality and extends to global politics, as global actors have underlying ethics to their actions, such as realism or cosmopolitanism; global actors are guided by different ethics that relate to ideologies etc

International Law

Body of rules established by custom or written legal agreements that are accepted as binding upon the international community. Customary international law applies to all global actors. Written legal agreements, such as treaties, are only binding to those who consent to them via explicit ratification. Ethics are enshrined IN international law. (Some international laws may apply only to states, such as the UN Convention against Torture, while others may apply directly to citizens, such as war crimes)

Human Rights

United Nations Convention Against Torture (UNCAT)

Aims to prohibit and prevent the use of torture, cruel, inhumane or degrading treatment around the world. Signatories are obliged to prevent torture within their territories.

ARTICLE 2

“Each state shall take effective…measures to prevent acts of torture in their territory under its jurisdiction”

• Torture must be listed as a criminal offence within the state

ARTICLE 3

“No state party shall expel or extradite a person to another state where there are substantial grounds for believing they would be in danger of being subjected to torture”

• The government must not extradite any individual to a state where there is the possibility that they will be tortured (nonrefoulement)

Enforcement

• Upon ratifying the UNCAT states must submit a report within one year

• States must submit reports every 4 years regarding the implementation of the UNCAT, which are reviewed by an independent committee with 10 experts

• The committee works to hold states accountable for human rights violations, systematically investigating reports of torture, with the ability to bring it to the attention of the UN Gen Assembly

Effectiveness

• Widely recognised, with 173 state parties - adding to its legitimacy and evidence of international determination to enshrine and protect human rights

• However, the UNCAT lacks a strong enforcement mechanism; if a state does not abide by a treaty there is not a lot the international can do. (e.g. public caning in Indonesia)

Cosmopolitan Response to the UNCAT

• Human Rights Action Plan in New Zealand

In 2019, the NZ government announced their commitment to ‘show global leadership and make a positive difference on global human rights issues’

In accordance with the UNCAT, the NZ government has taken steps to reform the prison system including reducing the use of tie-down beds and building mental health treatment units in maximum security prisons.

NZ Human rights advocacy priorities are consistent with the focus of human rights work in the aid programme and through international cooperation, particularly in the Asia-Pacific region. NZ’s aid program promotes and protects human rights via advocacy, support to human rights mechanisms and funding of initiatives that improve social and economic rights (such as access to health, education and clean water) and civil and political rights (such as good governance and rule of law).

Realist Response to the UNCAT

In 2013, Aceh implemented laws that outline offences that are otherwise not punishable under Indonesian federal law. The bylaws criminalised same-sex sexual acts as well as Zina or sexual relations outside of marriage. The permitted penalty was up to 100 lashes or 100 months in prison for consensual same-sex acts, while Zina carried the punishment of 100 lashes.

Despite being a signatory of the UNCAT, the government allowed sharia law to prevail in Aceh.

Indonesian President, Joko Widodo stated that Aceh should cease using caning as a form of punishment but no meaningful steps have been taken to enforce this.

In 2017, 2 men in Aceh were publicly caned 77 times each for same-sex sexual acts. In 2022, a woman was flogged 100 times in Aceh for adultery.

Furthermore, Sudan also implements the death penalty by stoning. In 2022, a 20-year-old woman named Mariam Tirab was sentenced to death by stoning for adultery. The African Center for Justice remarked that the ‘death penalty by stoning for adultery is a grave violation of international law…including the prohibition of torture.’

However, in 2020, Sudan’s Government announced reforms to some criminal laws and Sharia policies- the reforms did not include stoning but in August, Sudan ratified the UNCAT. Human Rights Lawyer, Jehanne Henry stated that the sentence illustrates ‘harsh sharia laws [and] penalties still being implemented in Sudan.’ Which are considered torture, thus constituting Sudan’s penalties to be in violation of the UNCAT.

Amnesty International

AI remarked that caning contravenes Indonesia’s constitution, and is a clear violation of human rights law and standards. It is cruel, inhumane and degrading and can amount to torture in violation of the UNCAT.

Furthermore, AI reported on torture in over 141 states as of 2017. Its ‘Empowerment Against Torture’ human rights workshops are designed to encourage the international community to ensure state compliance with the provisions of the UNCAT.

AI utilises a cosmopolitan approach, maintaining that they prioritise the sanctity of international human rights over the specific needs and interests of states. In 2015, Nigerian man Moses Akatguba was sentenced to death for stealing on the grounds of a confession obtained under torture. Nigerian authorities actually pardoned Akatguba and commuted his death sentence after 800,000 AI supporters signed a petition.

United Nations Convention on the Rights of a Child (UNCRC)

Aims to require governments to adopt laws, policies and practices to protect the rights of children and enhance healthy development.

States that ratify the UNCRC, pledge to protect children from economic and sexual exploitation, violence and other forms of abuse- and advance the rights of children to education, healthcare and decent living standards.

ARTICLE 28 - Education Laws

Requires parties to recognise the rights of the child to education, and to make primary education compulsory for all.

ARTICLE 32 - Labour Protection Laws

Requires state parties to protect children from economic exploitation, and that they are protected from doing dangerous work.

Enforcement

States that ratify the UNCRC must submit reports every 5 years to a committee on the rights of the child.

The committee not only examines each state’s report but also information from NGOs and UN sources to identify areas of concern and progress, and recommend steps that the state should take to improve the lives of children.

Government delegates also meet with the committee after the review to express the steps the government should take.

Cosmopolitan Response to the UNCRC

• Iceland

In 2020, NGO Kids Rights Index ranked Iceland first based on data from the UN and the principles of the UNCRC. Iceland has effectively incorporated the UNCRC, children are educated on the convention from a young age to their final years of secondary education.

Labour laws state children cannot work until 13- and if so they must work light, safe jobs such as those in the service industry. Children must be 16 for most other jobs, however, they cannot be strenuous or dangerous such as jobs involving chemicals or machinery.

Working children must also have at least 2 days off per week and 12-15 hours of rest per 24-hour period. Children of 14 years can only work a maximum of 3 hours on a school day.

Realist Response to the UNCRC

• Nigeria

Despite being party to the convention, approximately 15 million children are engaged in child labour. According to the International Labor Organisation (ILO), Children in Nigeria engage in the worst forms of child labour including artisanal mining, quarrying granite and armed conflict.

The Child’s Rights Act has only been adopted by 25 out of Nigeria’s 36 states, leaving the 11 remaining states with legal frameworks that don’t meet international standards. There is also no minimum age for ‘self-employed’ children and roughly 47% of Children aged 5-14 are working. Around 30% of child workers do not receive compensation and must work against their will.

Ethical Debates

Cultural Relativism Vs. Universality

Cosmopolitan Perspective-

Supporters of universality suggest that human rights that have been guaranteed in international treaties are universal, apply to all states and must prevail when they conflict with cultural or religious practices.

New Zealand announced its commitment to show ‘global leadership and make a positive difference on global human rights issues’ in keeping with the UNCAT and reforming the prison system. They maintain that human rights ‘lie at the core of their identity’ and utilise aid programs to protect, fund and support human rights initiatives.

Amnesty International’s Deputy Director, Josef Benedict refused to accept cultural justifications for the violation of human rights in response to the sentencing of two gay men in Aceh with 85 lashes each. Benedict reiterated the universality of human rights standards, stating the Aceh authorities must ‘immediately revoke the conviction…and end the use of this punishment.’

Realist Perspective-

Realists assert that human rights are not innate; instead shaped by local, cultural or religious contexts. Advocates for cultural relativism argue that permitting international law to override religious and cultural practice is a violation and imposition upon sovereignty and authority.

Aceh suggests that their bylaws which permit public caning for same-sex relations and extramarital relations are extensions of cultural and religious beliefs that preceed obligations under international law.

Economic Challenges to the Universality of Human Rights

Cosmopolitan Perspective -

Cosmopolitan states like Iceland maintain that human rights must always prevail, regardless of any economic gain or expense. Iceland’s laws ensure that children aged under 13 cannot work, and enforces strict laws regarding the rights of Children in the workplace. Iceland is ranked first in its incorporation of the UNCRC and strong laws protecting children from exploitation.

Realist Perspective -

However, realists maintain that human rights are far too expensive and difficult for developing states to uphold. In 2017, the President of Uganda, Yoweri Museveni stated “It is ok to talk of human rights, but the growth of the economy should be the first point of emphasis.” Realists give more weight to monetary advantages and tax revenue that can be reaped as opposed to maintaining framework to protect children from exploitation.

A large share of the Nigerian workforce is made up of childten who are paid very little and forced into dangerous conditions as cheap labour may attract more investment in mining projects which in turn result in increased tax revenue. 30% of these children also work unwillingly and do not receive compensation for their work- suggesting a clear prioritisation of economic benefit over adherence to international human rights standards.

State Sovereignty Vs The Responsibility to Protect

The R2P doctrine is an agreement accepted by all UN members which states that the international community must work together to prevent atrocity crimes such as genocide, war crimes and ethnic cleansing. However, being a doctrine, R2P is not legally binding.

The concept of R2P emerged following the failure of the international community to respond to mass atrocities comitted in Rawnda and the former Yugoslavia in the 1990s.

The 3 pillars of Responsibility are

• Pillar 1

The states bears the primary responsibility to protect its population from genocide, war crimes, crimes against humanity and ethnic cleansing.

• Pillar 2

The international community has a responsibility to assist states to uphold R2P

• Pillar 3

The international community must take timely and decisive action to protect populations if a state is unwilling or unable to protect populations in accordance with the UN charter.

Cosmopolitan Perspective -

The R2P is cosmopolitan because it aligns with the notion of cosmopolitanism, in which humanity is regarded as a single community- regardless of state, culture or levels of economic developing. Asserting that all humans are equal and should be treated with equality, and that global actors should act with this motivation.

• R2P is a cosmopolitan justification for intervening in the affairs of a state

Cosmopolitans argue that R2P prevents atrocity crimes, fulfill obligations if the state has failed their people and is incumbent upon the international community to uphold human rights. It can also serve a state’s national interest such as upholding human rights or removing an enemy.

R2P is also a string, swift international response that could act as a deterrent in future and a globalised world means that human rights violations can transcene borders.

Realist Perspective -

Opponents of R2P are guided by realism, suggesting that R2P is unacceptable as the intervention of other states or the international community infringes upon sovereignty.

Though military intervention is often required to bring about meaningful change, it is fraught with danger as it is costly, unpopular and can cause collateral damage.

Intervention can also be perceived as neo-imperialism and R2P could be used a justification for invasion in future.

People Movement & International Laws

1951 Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees

Initially applied to European refugees after WW2 in 1951 however the 1967 protocol was added which broadened applicability.

• Currently having 145 signatories +1 party (the USA).

In accordance with the convention, a refugee is someone who is “unable or unwilling to return to their country of origin due to a well-founded fear of being persecuted for reasons of race, religion, nationality, membership of a specific social group or political opinion”

• The UNHCR is tasked with promoting international instruments for the protection of refugees

ARTICLE 3

“The contracting state shall apply the principles of the convention to refugees without discrimination as to race, religion or country of origin”

ARTICLE 31 (1)

“the right of people fearing persecution to seek protection” (Non-Penalisation)

ARTICLE 33

States must follow the principle of non-refoulment, meaning the state cannot return refugees “in any manner….to the frontiers of territories where his life or freedom would be threatened”

Criticisms

• Rulings are ‘reactive’ rather than proactive, placing obligations on the state which refugees are fleeing to but not obligations on the states refugees are fleeing from.

• States are required to consider all applications no matter how ill-founded, with applications increasing markedly in recent times. This wastes resources as in 2012, according to the UNHCR, only 30% of applicants were recognised as refugees

• Does not specify how, in the face of a major crisis, states should allocate responsibility for refugees.

• No obligations on receiving states upon the return of refugees despite overt challenges they face such as the reclaiming of property and finding employment. This could potentially result in more conflict.

Realist

Australia: accepted 12,000 refugees from the UNHCR in 2015 and 17,555 in 2016. Contrary to this:

>In 2012, Julia Guilard opened detention centers in Manus and Narun - breaching Article 31 of the UNHCR

>In 2014 Australia intercepted 41 asylum seekers from Sri Lanka and refouled them

>In 2018, politician Peter Dutton expressed “it is not in our national interests to sign our border protection policy over to the UN… We’re not going to surrender our sovereignty”

Cosmopolitan

Germany: resettled 890,000 asylum seekers (article 33: non-refoulment) and provided them with public housing and cash allowances of 216 euros a month

>In 2016 German Chancellor, Angela Merkel announcing ‘We can do this’ in regards to accepting more refugees

>In 2022, a total 244,132 asylum applications were filed in Germany, which was a 28% increase from the previous year according to the Federal Office for Migration and Refugees

>According to World Data Info these refugees primarily come from Syria and Afghanistan

Amnesty International

Stated Intention on Refugees – “We campaign to make sure governments honour their shared responsibility to protect the rights of refugees”

❖ 2016 (Public Opinion) – AI released a petition to increase the Australian annual refugees intake to 30,000; receiving signification public support (35,000 signatures); yet no action was taken by the Australian government.

❖ 2016 – UK refugee intake

>The UK has taken fewer than 8,000 Syrian refugees since 2011.

❖ 2016 – Kate (Director of Amnesty UK) condemns the UK, expressing that “it’s disgraceful that the UK hosts less than one per cent of the world’s refugees”

>In 2017 the UK decreased its refugee intake by 13,000 and from 2016-2017 to 5000

Ethical Debates

Obligations to asylum seekers and other refugees versus national interests including border security

Cosmopolitan Perspective -

• States should resettle asylum seekers because they share a legal and moral obligation within the global community to cooperate on the issue of people movement

• States should view a common humanity of people beyond their own borders

For instance, Germany is steadily increasing their intake of refugees annually, In 2022, Germany admitted close to 6,000 refugees through resettlement and humanitarian admission programmes and plans to continue with a target of 6,500 places in 2023. According to the UNHCR

Former Chancellor of Germany Angela Markel will also receive a UNHCR Nansen Refugee award for protecting refugees from the Syrian crisis, as Germany welcomed more than 1.2 million refugees and asylum seekers in 2015 and 2016

Realist Perspective -

• Because the main role of a state is to pursue self-preservation it must prioritise national security over obligations to asylum seekers, as this is in the interests of the state’s own citizens

• 2017 After rejecting calls from the EU to accept 6,000 asylum seekers, the Polish PM Beata Szydlo expresses that it is “impossible not to connect” EU’s migration policy to terrorism, demonstrating prioritization of border security over the obligation to asylum seekers

Furthermore, Daleel, a Syrian Refugee, committed a suicide bombing in Germany injuring 15 people which reinforced stereotypes and public concern of migrants bringing harm to the state and impacting border security.

Differing approaches regarding refugee resettlement

Cosmopolitan Perspective -

• States should resettle asylum seekers because they share a legal and moral obligation within the global community to cooperate on the issue of people movement

• Because humanity transcends state borders, states should resettle refugees by recognising that those beyond its borders are equal to those within

For instance, the German resettlement of 890,000 asylum seekers in 2015. Ultimately highlighting Germany’s cosmopolitan approach to resettling refugees and demonstrating their moral obligations towards the issue of people movement and the broader global community.

Furthermore, Ger Duany a UNCHR ambassador expressed that “refugees are part of humanity and we can’t leave them behind”

Realist Perspective -

• close state borders, so as to prioritise national security and sovereignty over resettling refugees

• 2017 After rejecting calls from the EU to accept 6,000 asylum seekers, the Polish PM Beata Szydlo expresses that it is “impossible not to connect” EU’s migration policy to terrorism, demonstrating prioritization of border security over the obligation to asylum seekers

In 2012, Julia Guilard also reopened detention centers to conduct extreme offshoring processing of asylum seekers, placing them in detention centers. Though by June 2023, all refugees were evacuated from Nauru and the Australian government expressed that it remains insistent “to offshore processing as a policy” which will cost roughly $350M annually. (The Guardian 2023)

The Rights of Refugees Versus Economic Migrants

Cosmopolitan Perspective -

• Because refugees are the most vulnerable they should be prioritized over economic migrants for resettlement and afforded additional special rights enshrined in the Refugee Convention

In 2015, Sweden provided the refugees its resettled with special rights such as receiving 71 crowns a day, providing a 2-year employment aid program etc. and after resettling 165,000 asylum seekers, Sweden experienced its biggest economic boom in 5 years with a 4.5% GDP expansion

In addition, according to the UNHCR “Sweden has made it a core priority to protect and empower women and girls, and is at the global forefront in leading efforts to advocate for refugee women’s and girls’ rights”. Sweden is renowned for its support of female refugees.

Realist Perspective -

• Because the main role of a state is to pursue self-preservation and refugees should not possess additional rights over other migrants, states should prioritize economic migrants, as they contribute to the economy over refugee resettlements (which is a burden)

In 2016, according to the Bundestag statistics service Germany spent over $20 billion euros supporting asylum seekers. In 2019, Germany spent a record 23 billion euros on refugee integration. Furthermore, Germany spent 21.6% of its federal budget on asylum seekers in 2021 (Statistica).

In 2015, ABS figures also showed Australia accepted approximately 42,000 skilled migrants and only approximately 12,000 refugees. In 2021, the annual cost to hold someone offshore in Nauru or PNG was $3.4M and $362,000 AUD to hold someone in detention. (Kaldor Research Centre) This presented a huge burden on taxpayer cost as offshore processing is incredibly expensive.

Crisis Diplomacy

Negotiations between actors in the global political arena in response to an immediate crisis. The crisis or change itself creates an urgent situation with a strong likelihood of rapid escalation, thus demanding a prompt response.

Conventionally, CD has been associated with diplomats and politicians engaged in emergency sitting sessions, negotiations, bargaining efforts etc focused on avoiding or limiting armed conflict or escalation. (Ex. 1962 Cuban Missile Crisis)

Most typically relate to natural disasters, health crises, and economic crises. (Ex. humanitarian aid efforts for the 2010 Haiti earthquakes, 2014-2016 Ebola outbreak in West Africa and the 2007-2008 Global Financial Crisis)

International Cooperations

Occasions when global actors collaborate and interact with each other in the pursuit of reciprocal common ideals/goals/interests

Globalisation

Acceleration and intensification of exchanges of goods, services, labour and capital, thus promoting global interdependence. These have been facilitated by rapid changes in communication and technology

Unilateralism

Refers to the policy of a state acting alone in pursuit of the national interests and/or in response to a global crisis.

Causes

Climate change is caused by the burning of fossil fuels such as coal, oil, and natural gas in order to sustain essential needs for life such as agriculture, energy, transport and industry. The gases subsequently released into the atmosphere trap heat from the sun and warm the earth, enhancing the greenhouse effect and leading to global warming. As of 2018, fossil fuel exploitation was responsible for 89% of global carbon emissions.

Furthermore, constant deforestation for resources such as palm oil, timber, and residential estates depletes natural carbon. As trees absorb carbon dioxide, the lack of trees leads to less greenhouse gas absorption.

Finally, agriculture such as cattle, exacerbate greenhouse gas emission. Livestock are responsible for 14.5% of greenhouse gas because they build up methane gas in their stomachs and release it into the atmosphere. Methane is 25 times more potent per kilogram than CO2. Cows are considered a lucrative commodity as the global population increases the need for meat and leather.

At the UN climate change conference in 2021, COP26, it was made clear that the former goal of lowering global temperature by 2 degrees Celsius was no longer attainable. Thus a new target of 1.5 degrees was agreed upon.

Effects

The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) is a UN body that assesses the science related to climate change in order to provide governments with scientific knowledge to guide policies. IPCC reports also inform international climate change negotiations (ex. 2015 Paris Agreement)

The IPCC’s Fifth Assessment Report (AR5) (which informed the Paris Agreement) discusses the future risks and potential impacts of climate change.

Species extinction

• Due to climate change, species face increased risks of extinction during and beyond the 21st century

• Coral reefs & polar ecosystems are highly vulnerable

• Coastal systems and low-lying areas are at risk of rising sea levels which will continue for centuries even if the global mean temp. stabilises

Food insecurity

• Climate change will undermine food security

• This threat causes a collapse of agriculture and water scarcity. Warmer temperatures make growing crops more difficult, water supply diminishes

• Climate change is projected to reduce groundwater resources and renewable surface water in most dry subtropical regions which intensifies competition for water among sectors

Human Health

• Exacerbate health problems that already exist, and increase ill-health in many regions- especially those in developing countries with low income

Risks to Urban Areas

• Increase risk(s) for people, assets, economies, and ecosystems- including risks from heat stress, storms, extreme precipitation, drought, air pollution, water scarcity, rising sea levels etc

• These risks are also amplified for those lacking essential infrastructure and services

Impacts to Rural Areas

• Expected to experience major impacts on water availability and supply, food security, infrastructure and agricultural incomes- including shifts in the production areas of food and non-food crops

Global Actor Response : United States

The US is one of the largest greenhouse gas emitters and one of the largest green-tech powerhouses. Under President Biden, the US has increased emissions targets to reduce emissions by 50-52% by the end of the decade. In addition, the US set a goal for net-zero emissions by 2050 (Whitehouse.gov)

In accordance with new legislation and regulations, the US looks to be closer to meeting those commitments.

Furthermore, the US also shifted from coal to natural gas which is a cheaper resource and aided in its reduction to reduce emissions. Natural gas now accounts for 30% of energy use in the US.

In spite of this, energy demands continue to halt some progress towards transitioning to renewable energy. California decided to postpone the closure of its last nuclear plant and extend the life of natural gas-fired facilities for additional sources of power. Moreover, in 2021 Congress announced it approved $1 billion for international climate finance- starkly contrasti

ng President Biden’s pledge for $11.4 billion by 2024. The low climate finance provision is simply not enough to make up its fair share of the contribution and undermines the credibility of stated US intentions.

Global Actor Response : China

China is typically denoted as the world's largest energy market. China approaches climate change with an integrated response, aiming to cooperate with the international community to fight against climate change. In addition, China co-chaired UN discussion with New Zealand (2019) on “nature based solutions” to global warming

China has taken steps to combat climate change by dismantling coal-fired power plants and reducing overall emissions levels. Furthermore, In June 2022, 17 departments of the Chinese government jointly released the ‘National Climate Change Adaptation Strategy 2035’, which sets long-term principles and action plans for climate adaptation.

In spite of this, China is still the world's largest emitter. Producing 12.7 billion metric tons of emissions annually. As part of Paris Agreement commitments, China stated it would peak emissions by 2030 and pledged to increase non-fossil fuel energy to 25%. In addition, China leads the world in producing solar panels, wind turbines and electric vehicle batteries. In 2022, China also made a significant investment of $546 billion in clean energy initiatives. However, this investment has not stopped it from continuing to develop new coal power plants to meet its increasing energy demands.

On the contrary, China is still reliant on coal power which undermines the effectiveness of its response to the crisis. The IEA (International Energy Agency) estimates that China’s coal demand will equate to 56% of global coal demand. China also added over 100 gigawatts of coal-fired generation capacity in the past year, equivalent to building two large power plants every week.

Intergovernmental Response To Climate Change

United Nations Response

The UN holds annual climate change conferences (COP) annually in the framework of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCC) as its an area where the UN can address concerns regarding climate change, assess progress and conduct negotiations.

At Cop 21 in 2015, the landmark Paris Agreement was reached to combat climate change, (and the previous goal of lowering the world temp was 2 degrees Celsius) and intensify action with 184 member states. The agreement's aim was to strengthen the global response to climate change. However, many states such as China and Australia are not necessarily striving to achieve obtainable goals due to external factors like economic gain acquired via resources such as coal or iron ore. The Paris Agreement also lacks enforcement powers, due to states being the master of treaties and the sanctity of state sovereignty.

Moreover, the UN also holds annual climate summits. In 2019, as global emissions were reaching record levels, leaders were called by the UN to New York with concrete, realistic plans to enhance NDC’s by 2020 and the aim of net zero by 2050.

Furthermore, other UN initiatives include the ‘getting to zero’ coalition. Which is an alliance of more than 150 maritime, energy, infrastructure and finance companies with the goal of commercially viable, deep sea, zero-emission vessels operating by 2030. However, this is becoming increasingly unlikely considering current technology and progress.

Non-State Actor Response

Amnesty International

AI sees climate change as a danger to human rights because those negatively impacted by wealth inequality suffer the brunt of disadvantages. For example if the world transitioned to renewable energy, miners and oil workers would lose their jobs. Whereas the wealthy would suffer comparatively less.

AI aims to help stop global temperature rising by more than 1.5 degrees and more importantly, ensure climate action is done in a way that doesn’t infringe on human rights or increase equality. In addition, they seek to ensure that people are properly informed about climate action and can participate in decisions regarding their futures. For instance, in 2019 alongside activist groups organised the People’s Summit on Climate, Rights and Human Survival to push for human rights based solutions to climate change.

Moreover, in 2019 AI released the ‘fence off and bring cattle’, a report on illegal cattle farming in Brazil’s Amazon rainforest. It was released along with a petition with over 162,000 signatures to Brazilian authorities to stop illegal seizures of protected land in the Amazon. This otherwise risked the human rights of the indigenous people that reside there and their right to home and health, as well as the entire planet. It was also found that the Bolsonaro administration had cut funding as means to undermine environmental and Indigenous protection agencies, upon ground investigation.

However, No concrete action was taken by the Brazilian government in response to the accusations and according to Amnesty (2020) cattle illegally grazed in these protected areas have entered the supply chain of the worlds largest meat packer JBS who have failed to implement an effective monitoring system for it’s supply chain. Ultimately, rendering AI’s action ineffective.

Challenges to Effective Resolutions

Lifestyle

Fossil fuels are central to the current human lifestyle as they are essential for energy, transport, agriculture, manufacturing etc.

• 2 degrees is the threshold for dangerous climate change

• 565 Gigatons which is the amount of carbon dioxide we can safely release into the atmosphere that enables us to stay below 2 degrees

• 2795 Gigatons amount of carbon dioxide that would be released if all fossil fuel reserves were dug up and burned. This would produce catastrophic climate change

• Fossil fuel companies spent $700 billion in 2014

Culture

Industrialisation has resulted in a materialistic, consumerist and pervasive culture that prides itself on cheap, quick and mass production that encourages unsustainable production and consumption. This leads to waste, resource exploitation, gas emissions and environmental degradation.

• According to renowned Swedish furniture and good retailer, ‘IKEA’ Western consumers have peaked in their need for home furnishing

• Fortunately, IKEA has pledged to invest $1 billion in renewable energy measures to help poorer communities deal with the impact of climate change.

Mindset

The current mindset of states is a challenge due to the short-term economic mindset. States typically pursue a national interact agenda that prioritises economic prosperity, measured by GDP. Citizens are consumers of goods/services which are supplied by TNCs whose core aim is to maximise profit. Thus leading to an increase in things like fast fashion.

Ideology

An influential minority of individuals & groups, for reasons of ideological belief or ties to the fossil fuel sector, disagree with the overwhelming scientific consensus that asserts climate change. These groups/individuals have seen profits threatened by the push to reduce reliance on fossil fuels.

• For instance, states such as Australia have been deemed denialists and undermined public policy

• In 2011, PM Tony Abbott attacked economist Ross Garaut’s report as anti-democratic because it pointed out the cost of climate change inaction

• The direct political power and influence of the carbon industry is prominent in Australia due to its poor climate change policies

• However, in conjunction with the US, Australia announced the Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) that seeks to combine the efforts of a range of sectors – such as energy, transportation and technology – to address the major threat presented by climate change; The new MoU outlines five years of cooperation on clean energy, clean transportation, clean technologies etc.

Key Aspects of the Climate Change Crisis

Resource exploitation

As the world population increases, advances to support the world's 8,045,311,447 population [8 billion] (August 2023) has involved the exploitation of vital resources such as coal, oil and gas. Thus, leading to the greenhouse effect, global warming and climate change- which is characterised by melting glaciers, rising sea levels, water availability etc.

The global demand for resources leads to deforestation and thus impacts the climate. For instance, 3,988 square km of forest was cleared from January to July in Brazil to keep up with the demand for wood products. States make use of, abuse and benefit from resources and are hesitant to cease exploitation because of economic gain. Oil and gas contribute towards 3% of Australia’s GDP and support 80,000 Australian jobs. Coal mining was also worth $51 Billion in the Australian industry. In addition, TNC Saudi Aramco made $48.4 USD in profit from resource exploitation which is the largest in current history.

Resource exploitation actively harms and challenges climate change, but is extremely lucrative and states and global actors utilise resources to stimulate the economy and gain profit.

National Interests

The NI of economic prosperity has transparently driven the crisis to such a deep extent, as short-term economic advancement has been given precedent.

Addressing the climate crisis requires long-term solutions and commitment that may be very difficult; as states cannot predict potential challenges to their economy. The burning of fossil fuel or deforestation has thus continued, because of the short-term economic benefits that states yield.

Brazil continued to clear forests for land which has allowed it to become the world's largest beef exporter, generating roughly 6.7 Billion USD annually.

The UNSC has also had difficulty in bringing climate change forward as a vital issue. Russia vetoed the UNSC proposal in December 2021 which sought to cast climate change as a threat to global peace and security. The UNSC proposal was the first of its kind and a years-long effort’ (The Guardian 2021). The proposal called for “incorporating information on the security implications of climate change” into the council’s strategies, but India and veto-wielding Russia voted no, while China abstained. Russian ambassador(s) claimed that climate change which is ‘a scientific and economic issue [would turn] into a politicized question’. Russia could possibly be motivated by its ideology and political views and be concerned with protecting and maintaining its sovereignty.

Methods of adapting to and reducing climate change

Global energy-related emissions rose 6% in 2021 to 36.3 billion tonnes, the highest-ever level (IEA 2022).

Adaptation: centred on adjusting to the ‘new normal’- implying resilience to adapt lifestyles, behaviours and activities resulting from an abrupt, disruptive and fundamental shift in the Earth’s climate.

Mitigation: tackling the causes of climate change by reassessing human activities that have a heavy carbon footprint, (such as burning fossil fuels) and replacing them with less carbon-intensive alternatives (such as renewable energy). The purpose of mitigation is to reverse the greenhouse gas effect and halt global warming or enhance carbon sinks.

Crisis Diplomacy

An example of terrorism is UNSC meeting 8052 in 2017, to discuss a probe into ISIS/ISIL/IS/Daesh crimes in Iraq which resulted in the UNSC resolution 2379 which established an investigation team to hold Daesh accountable for crimes.

International Cooperations

The Global Coalition against Daesh is comprised of the USA, Australia, the UK and regional groupings such as the Arab League and EU. (However, it is not a global actor)

Terrorism

The use/threat of force/violence against civilians and non-military targets in order to achieve political objectives. Terrorism is not an ideology, but a strategy used in asymmetric power struggles, seeking to create fear and promote violent response.

• Recently non-state terrorist groups such as Daesh have also been using the internet and media to spread their ideology and opinion (such as propaganda or broadcast acts of violence like beheadings)

• States may also use terrorism tactics to safeguard national interests, examples including Iran supporting Hezbollah or the USA supporting certain terrorist groups against the Assad regime in Syria

• Terrorism is not random violence, all terrorists possess the realisation of a specific goal or outcome and the belief violence is justified to achieve this outcome

Causes

Identity & Inequality

• Desire to reorganise society for political, religious and/or economic reasons

• When there is no access to food, water or other needs- terrorist organisations prey on desperate people

• Inequality: The treatment of foreign workers in Dubai, where people are ill-treated results in individuals breeding dissatisfaction and turning to extremist ideology

• People may turn to extremism if they lack a sense of identity or are in some way ostracised, looking for a group where they will be welcome and looking for means to channel anger or even revenge

Historical Factors

• Any historical events that people have not healed such as invasions, drawing of borders, social divides etc. where people are hurt physically, emotionally etc

Religion

• Within all religions are radical fundamentalist groups with extreme views. They believe they are fighting in the name of god, making it difficult to convince them they are wrong and easy to commit heinous attacks

• Islamic extremists typically justify violence in the name of ‘Jihad’ or with the Islamic State (IS) they want to expand the Islamic caliphate

Political Legitemacy

• Groups may seek to access and control resources

• With a lack of seats or legitimacy, groups may feel like their voices/beliefs are not heard; thus they may turn to violence to force the hand of governments because states will not negotiate with them

Daesh/Islamic State (IS)

A militant Islamist terrorist group following the Salafi jihadist branch of Islam, which is anti-western and promotes sectarian violence, targets those who do not agree with its interpretations.

• Aims to establish an Islamic state in Syria, Iraq and other areas of Levant

• Has like-minded groups in other parts of the world (ex. Islamic State Khorasan Province in Pakistan and Afghanistan) which help further its global influence

Causes of Daesh

Identity & Inequality

• Significant ecological threats in the Sahel, with severe water risks for 6 states, catastrophic food risks for 3 states, 43 million people with food insecurity and 18 million experience to the extent of an emergency crisis from a population of 25.1 million to 65.5 million

• Rapid population growth is also projected in the same regions with Niger expected to experience 161% growth by 2050. Which ties in with the wealth of ISIS

• Fighters are paid between $400 and $1200 USD a month including a $50 USD stipend for wives and a $25 USD stipend per child (CNBC); whilst those in the region receive roughly $72 USD a month (2020 Global Terrorism Index Report). This means that individuals may be incentivised for a better quality of life and avoid starvation or harm to their families by joining Daesh

• Daesh also professes Sharia Law which includes free housing, clothing, food and welfare for all- with people only obliged to work to ‘enrich themselves’. Proving an attractive prospect for many.

Historical Factors

• Islamic Caliphates existed over 1000 years ago in areas of the Levant, serving as inspiration for Daesh which seeks to follow the ‘prophetic methodology’

• in which the UK and France defined their mutually agreed spheres of influence and control of the Ottoman Empire without any regard for the ethnic or sectarian characteristic of the land divided

• More recently the 1916 Sykes-Piqot treaty (in which the UK and France defined their mutually agreed spheres of influence and control of the Ottoman Empire without any regard for the ethnic or sectarian characteristic of the land divided) contributed to dissatisfaction;

• It led Daesh’s former leader Abu Bakr Al Baghdadi to give a speech at a mosque in Mosul in 2014 where he vowed to not let the Daesh ‘advance’ stop ‘until we [Daesh] hit the last nail in the coffin on the Sykes-Piqot conspiracy’

• The invasion of Iraq in 2003 is considered to have resulted in the formation of Daesh emerging out of Al-Qaeda

Religion

• Daesh fundamentally revolves around Salafist teachings, maintaining that they must follow Quranic teachings to the letter. Their extreme interpretation undertakes teachings such as slavery, beheadings, crucifixion and punishments of stoning and amputation

Political Legitemacy

• By nature of its principles, Daesh is unable to send an ambassador to the UN or to any other sort of leader to intergovernmental panels to talk as this is strictly forbidden. Such an action would recognise another authority apart from God. Even voting for a candidate by democratic means would be considered “shirk”. Hence lacking political autonomy or legitimacy by choice

Key Aspects of the Terrorism Crisis

Non-State Terrorism

Includes well-known groups such as Boko Haram, Al Qaeda and Jemaah Islamiah

States can respond in multiple ways to non-state terrorism such as via the military, economically or politically.

Terrorism as an Instrument of State Policy

• Used to achieve the aims of a state, involving retaining power by unstable or undemocratic governments

• Can occur directly, such as Syria using chemical weapons and directing attacks against civilians

• Can be indirect; the Syrian Islamist political and militant group Hezbollah is deemed a terrorist organisation by Australia, Germany and Israel. Hezbollah has been allowed to operate, however, and received funding and training from the Assad government with 7000 soldiers deployed in Syria

• In March 2018, roughly 3000 Hezbollah soldiers were sent to Damascus to participate in the right against a rebel stronghold. Within 3 weeks, 1100 civilians were dead including 227 children and 153 women (Syrian Observatory for Human Rights)

Asymmetric Warfare

The smaller less powerful combatant (IS) often uses an array of unorthodox methods of warfare such as using guerrilla tactics, light arms, civilian vehicles, improvised bombs, mines, kidnappings, beheadings, suicide bombings and using vehicles to run people over.

This strikes fear into the enemy and also makes it difficult to respond as states can not employ similar means and often find it difficult to identify and engage the enemy.

IS has continued to orchestrate acts of mass violence that remain characteristic of asymmetric warfare, targeting outlying and vulnerable populations in Iraq and Syria. In 2014, IS killed at least 1,700 Shia Iraqi Air Force cadets in an attack in Iraq with assault rifles. This is the second deadliest terrorist attack conducted by IS.

Furthermore, Deash cannot be prosecuted by bodies such as the ICC because the state is not party to the Rome Statute. Furthermore, crimes must be referred to the ICC by the UNSC which is unlikely due to the fact states like Russia, China and the US will likely veto action for a number of reasons- one being that Russia is an ally of the Assad Government. In addition, the ICC is a court of last resort- meaning it only prosecutes when states are unwilling or unable. States such as the UK will likely prosecute their own as they are willing and able to.

The United Nations Response/ Intergovernmental Organisation Response

The UNGA resolution 71/291 (2017) established the office of counter-terrorism with five main functions

• Provide leadership on UN-counter terrorism mandates

• Enhance coordination between UN counter-terrorism entities

• Help member states build capacity to counter terrorism

• Marketing response to receive resources

• Promote counter terrorism responses

UNSC resolution 2253 (2015) by the US and Russia which specified sanctions against ISIL (Daesh) in Iraq. It outlined sanctions such as

1. Freeze of assets, funds and economic resources by all states

2. Prevention of entry or transit through the terrority of all states

3. Prevention of the use of arms, vessels, aircraft and related material including spare parts, advice, assistance or training by all states. (Japan is also effectively now responsible for stopping Daesh from obtaining Toyata’s.)

However, an asset freeze may not be effective as ISIL still has considerable economic power.

The UNGA 72nd Resolution (72/46, 2017) called on member states to support international efforts to prevent terrorists from obtaining WOMD (weapons of mass destruction), their materials and means of delivery. The UNGA also appealed to members to consider accession and ratification to the International Convention for the Suppression of Acts of Nuclear Terrorism (ICSANT).

Furthermore, UNSC resolution 2133 (2014) calls on member states to keep ransom payments and political concessions from benefiting terrorists. However, A number of ransoms have been paid to Daesh that subsequently benefit Daesh. Kurdish families have paid ransoms, including Dilan Mofaq Rashid whose family paid USD 40,000 for his release. The UNSC has been thoroughly criticised for a lack of implementation or enforcement, subject to state-based compliance.

The UNSC also proposed a resolution in 2018 (resolution 18/321) that would condemn the use of chemical weaponry in Syria- however, this was vetoed by Russia which acted unilaterally. Thus, humanitarian intervention did not occur and Assad remains in power while chemical attacks occur. In addition, a proposed resolution in 2017 that would seek to impose sanctions on Syria for its use of chemical weapons was vetoed by both Russia and China despite incurring loss of life.

State Responses to Terrorism: Australia

Australia’s Signals Directorate (ASD)

• Works to spy in a cyber sense, tapping phone calls, emails, text messages etc.

• Was tasked with taking down, and then destroyed the ISIS propaganda machine (which is an example of globalisation, because they were fighting against individuals in Syria whilst themselves being in Canberra)

• “By the time they were done [ASD], Islamic State’s propaganda outlet had shrunk from a roar to a squeak” (The Australian)

• In October 2017, ISIL output dropped from 29 daily messages to 10 (BBC)

• The number of reports produced by ISIL news services fell from 421 in September 2017, to 178 in September 2018 (BBC)

• In spite of this, shutting down ISIL servers may also make monitoring ISIL activities harder. In addition, the campaign began in 2016, which many considered too late to significantly reduce ISIL activities

Aid to Civillians

This ensures civilians do not resort to terrorist tactics to survive. Australian aid includes $249 Million between 2017-2020, in the Syria Crisis Humanitarian and Resilience Package.

• This includes funding to protect those in Syria, as well as money to improve access to livelihood, education and opportunities for refugees.

Australian Response Exacerbating Orignal Crisis

Australia has adopted a policy of cancelling the passports of individuals who are suspected of travelling to Syria to join ISIL in line with UNGA 2178. This attempts to stop the influx of foreign fighters and prevents ISIL from furthering its fighting force.

However, this can cause domestic terrorism as individuals are dissatisfied that they cannot travel and commit attacks at home. Such as the 2018 stabbing by Shire Ali which killed one person before he was shot by police, ostensibly because he was unable to travel to Syria and fight for ISIL.

State Responses to Terrorism: United Kingdom

The Royal Air Force (RAF) is primarily service in this operation. By 2017, the UK had trained 40,000 Iraqi personnel and conducted 1,200 airstrikes. The RAF also deployed many aircrafts including 6 Typhoon combat aircrafts, 2 C-130 transport aircrafts and a voyager air-to-air refuelling craft.

Global Coalition Against Daesh (GCAD)

Formed in 2018, it ‘committed to degrading and ensuring Daesh’s enduring defeat’ and currently with 86 members including the US, UK, Australia and UAE.

Stabilising Liberated Areas

Aims to consolidate gains and prevent the re-emergence of Daesh.

• Stabilisation and humanitarian efforts to help Iraqi people rebuild their lives after being liberated from Daesh

• Includes helping neighbourhoods clear remnants of war and debris and restoring basic services like electricity, water and education

• Setting conditions for local economies to recover

• Facilitate the movement of displaced Iraqis

However, there have been numerous attacks in North-East Syria in April 2022, which could mean a remergence of ISIL. (Al-Jazeera)

In addition, extreme poverty now affects more than 50% of the population and Syria’s GDP has shrunk by half.

Countering Propoganda

Aims to ensure ideological defeat.

• Disrupts ISIL’s online presence

• Contests the information space in which ISIL operates

• Working with the tech industry to prevent the spread of propaganda online

As of 2017, Daesh’s propaganda output was 85% less than that of 2015. However, this is in large part due to Australian efforts.

Military Progress

Aiming to ensure ISIL cannot regenerate, or reclaim lost group or pilot attacks.

• Applies pressure on the terrorist networks wherever they operate, involves evolving to face networks and branches

• Supports Iraqi forces with airstrikes and extensive training, Now aiding them as they transition from major combat to stability operations.

These have only been successful to an extent. As ISIL was declared defeated by Syria and lost all terrority in 2019. However, ISIL also affiliates with IS-Khorasan and IS-West Africa which still possess territory in Afghanistan and West Africa where they are still active.

Tackling Funding and Financing

Ensure multiple UNSC resolutions, such as 2133 are upheld- which prohibits any financial support of Daesh including funds raised from kidnapping, ransom and the sale of natural resources. Also prevents Daesh from providing financial and material support to its branches as they seek to expand global ambitions.

However, this has been ineffective for a number of reasons.

• In 2014, revenue from combined Daesh Iraq-Syrian oil production was as high as 3 million USD a day and 1.5 million in 2015 (Dubai-based energy analysts)

• This money was made from independent Syrian and Iraqi traders and also from the smuggling of oil to Turkey, Iraq, Iran and Jordan

• While they have been more successful regarding ransoms, such as the US government refusing to pay $132 Million USD for the life of journalist James Foley in 2014. Kurdish families have paid ransoms to Daesh, such as the $40,000 USD for Dilan Mofaq Rashid

Non-State Actor Response

Amnesty International (AI)

Assists victims in Daesh territory in Iraq and Syria. Also have observers to report on conditions including civilian casualties.

AI has released a number of reports to mobilise its support base and force states to take accountability for their actions.

From 2017-18, they have underlined indiscriminate attacks by the government on civilians and civilian objects- including on the 22nd of March 2018, when Russian forces carried out an airstrike on a residential building that burnt 37 civilians to death in Eastern Ghoutta.

Syrian government officials also deprived 250,000 residents in Eastern Ghoutta of access to medical care and basic goods during the siege, resulting in malnutrition.

AI report “Syria: Raqqa in ruins and civilians devastated after US-led ‘war of annihilation” details holes in the coalition's insistence that they minimalised harm, this includes first-hand evidence from four families who together lost 90 relatives and neighbours mostly due to coalition airstrikes. Human rights violations by Daesh does not relieve the coalition of obligations to minimise the harm to civilians. US forces also admitted to using 30,000 artillery rounds during the offensive on Raqqa.

In addition, according to the Carnegie Middle East Centre the cost to rebuild Syria after this damage will be between USD 200-400 billion. However, states have been reluctant to provide aid and it has not been forthcoming.

Furthermore, The coalition only accepted responsibility for 77 civilian deaths after the Amnesty Investigation, with a lack of measures to compensate victims. The coalition also continued to block requests to disclose the circumstances in which the strikes took place.

Challenges to Effective Resolution of Terrorism

Ideology

Despite the territorial loss, it is difficult to repress an ideology. Hence, the resurgence of Daesh despite losses.

Asymmetric Warfare

The tactics used by ISIL mean it is difficult for a standing army to respond as they are unorthodox. They themselves cannot employ Guerrilla tactics involving surprise raids, suicide bombings and beheadings.

This was underlined by Mozambique’s forces as well as the Wagner group who acted as combat advisors in response to raids in 2021. They were forced to retreat after suffering ambushes and dozens of deaths.

Similarly, in Mosul one strategy involves ceasing control of civilian homes and gathering residents on the ground floor whilst ISIL fighters positioned themselves on the roof to target security forces. Return fire would involve the house collapsing on civilians. Another tactic is the burning of pits of oil or oil wells to mask movements. This makes it harder ti engage in warfare.