PHL 104 Exam 3

Abductive reasoning reaches a conclusion by weighing only one possibility. T or F

False

A syllogism is a 2 part argument with one premise and one conclusion. T or F

False

Inductive reasoning deploys top down processing. T or F

False

Emma has blonde hair, her sister has blonde hair, therefore everyone in Emma’s family is blonde. What type of reasoning is this?

Inductive reasoning

What principle says the simplest explanation is usually closest to the truth?

Occam’s Razor

Inductive reasoning usually starts with: A. A general rule B. A list of observations C. A conditional statement D. A definition

B. A list of observations

Inductive reasoning looks for a pattern and then makes a: A. Contradiction B. Generalization or prediction C. Refusal D. Negation

B. Generalization or prediction

Abductive reasoning means: A. Using a general rule on one case B. Finding the best explanation C. Counting observations only D. Proving a conclusion with certainty

B. Finding the best explanation

Inductive reasoning is when we consider possible explanations and identify one as the best explanation. T or F

False

Deductive reasoning uses our knowledge of two or more premises to infer if a conclusion is valid. T or F

True

A conditional statement expresses a relationship between two events or phenomena. T or F

True

A researcher observes that several coastal cities with rising temperatures have experienced increased flooding over the past decade and concludes rising temperatures are likely to cause increased flooding in coastal cities. Which type of reasoning is this?

B. Inductive reasoning

A patient arrives with a high fever, cough, and fatigue. The doctor concludes the patient most likely has the flu. Which type of reasoning is this?

C. Abductive reasoning

What is confirmation bias?

Our tendency to seek out and selectively attend to or recall only those things that confirm our existing beliefs

What form of reasoning occurs when we collect observations and formulate hypotheses based on them?

Inductive reasoning

What form of reasoning occurs when we speculate about possible explanations and identify one as the best explanation?

Abductive reasoning

What form of reasoning occurs when we use our knowledge of two or more premises to infer whether a conclusion is valid?

Deductive reasoning

In a chained conditional ("If A then B; If B then C"), what valid conclusion can be drawn?

B. If A then C

Which fallacy involves concluding that what is true of a part must be true of the whole, or vice versa?

C. Part-whole fallacy

In the statement "All dogs are mammals," which term is distributed?

B. Dogs

“All SEC teams play in the South. Auburn is an SEC team. Therefore, Auburn plays in the South.” What type of reasoning is this?

C. Deductive

A hypothesis that cannot be proven wrong even in principle is considered a strong explanation under abductive reasoning criteria. T or F

False

Inductive reasoning starts with a general principle and applies it to a specific case. T or F

False

Circular reasoning occurs when the truth of the conclusion is assumed in one of the premises. T or F

True

A fan meets two rude Eagles fans and concludes that all Eagles fans are rude. This is an example of hasty generalization. T or F

True

Cillian Murphy is the most handsome actor. Fact or opinion?

Opinion

A fan watches Alabama beat three SEC opponents and concludes, “Alabama will beat every team in the SEC.” This is an example of deductive reasoning. T or F

False

What is the difference between an opinion and a fact?

B. An opinion is a belief; a fact can be proven true or false

How can you determine if a statement is a fact?

C. By testing, observing, measuring, and verifying it

What are the steps to test the validity of a categorical syllogism?

B. Identify categories → illustrate universal claims → illustrate particular claims → check if conclusion could be false

How do you know if a conclusion in a syllogism could be false?

B. If the diagram shows a case where premises are true but the conclusion is false

The following is an example of abductive reasoning: A person exhibits a fever, a cough, and a persistent sore throat. The doctor concludes that the person has strep throat. True or False

True

When using abductive reasoning, you are absolutely certain of the explanation. True or False

False

What is inductive reasoning?

Using single examples or observations to create or build laws or generalizations

There are four kinds of reasoning with if/then statements. Which ones result in a valid conclusion?

Affirm the antecedent and deny the consequent

All philosophers are thinkers. Some thinkers are writers. Therefore, some philosophers are writers. The argument is valid. True or False

False

No fish are mammals. Some pets are fish. Therefore, some pets are not mammals. The argument is valid. True or False

True

What is the fallacy of this argument: “Reagan was a great communicator because he had a knack for talking effectively to people.”

Circular reasoning

Any term that is distributed in the conclusion must be distributed in at least one premise. T or F

True

At least one premise must be affirmative. T or F

True

“Sucky teams lose to teams with a losing record. The Cardinals lost to the Rays. The Cardinals suck.” What type of reasoning is this?

A. Abductive

Which phrase emphasizes that inductive reasoning is a bottom-up process?

Starts with particular instances

Which criterion is also known as Occam’s Razor?

Simplicity

If a hypothesis cannot be proven mistaken, even in principle, which criterion is it failing?

Testability

What does it mean for a deductive argument to be valid?

The argument is constructed such that the premises guarantee the conclusion

In the statement “If the house is green, then the owner drinks coffee,” which part is the antecedent?

The house is green

Based on the rule regarding the non-occurrence of events, if the consequent does NOT occur, what must be true?

The antecedent also did not occur

In the example “If house 3 drinks milk, then house 4 must be green,” what is the consequent?

House 4 must be green

A conclusion is only valid when the second premise either affirms or denies the second premise. T or F

True

Testability is the simpler the explanation, the more likely it is to be true. T or F

False

In a valid deductive argument, if the premises are true, the conclusion must be true; however, in an inductive argument, the conclusion is only likely to be true based on observed patterns. T or F

True

The following is an example of inductive reasoning: “If you leave chopped apples out for longer than 15 minutes, they will turn brown. The apples on the counter have turned brown. Therefore, they were left on the counter.” True or False

False

Testability refers to: A. How many times a theory has been tested B. How easy it is to explain C. How often people believe it D. How easy it is to prove using observation or experiments

D. How easy it is to prove using observation or experiments

“If it’s a penguin, then it can’t fly. It CAN fly. Therefore, it’s not a penguin.” Is this a valid argument?

True

“If it’s a penguin, then it can’t fly. It can’t fly. Therefore, it’s a penguin.” Is this a valid argument?

False

Which cognitive bias describes our tendency to prefer an initial belief and then fail to adequately alter our confidence in it when presented with new information?

C. Anchoring and adjusting

Which form of reasoning is sometimes called “reasoning up,” as it collects particular instances, detects a pattern, and postulates a broad generalization?

B. Inductive reasoning

When evaluating an abductive argument, the criterion that asks whether an explanation provides the actual mechanisms and causes of what really happened is called:

C. Depth of Explanation

Given the conditional statement “If it rains, the ground will be wet,” which is a valid example of denying the consequent?

B. The ground is not wet. Therefore, it isn’t raining

Probability is the study of likelihood and uncertainty. T or F

True

The probability of an even or odd number on a fair six-sided die is 3/6 = 0.50. T or F

True

A conclusion is a belief that is derived from and supported by other statements, which we call premises. T or F

True

An argument is a set of claims or statements in which one of them, the conclusion, is meant to be supported by the others, the premises. T or F

True

Logic is the branch of philosophy that explicitly states the rules for deriving good conclusions. T or F

True

When we reason inductively, we collect observations and formulate hypotheses based on them. T or F

True

When we reason abductively, we speculate about possible explanations and identify one as the best explanation. T or F

True

When we reason deductively, we use our knowledge of two or more premises to infer if a conclusion is valid. T or F

True

Inductive reasoning uses single examples or observations to create or build laws or generalizations. T or F

True

Abductive reasoning selects the explanation that: A. Has the most premises B. Guarantees the conclusion C. Best fits the available evidence D. Is the most emotionally appealing

C. Best fits the available evidence

Which criterion is part of evaluating abductive explanations? A. Validity B. Simplicity C. Circularity D. Deductive certainty

B. Simplicity

Which reasoning pattern is used in the statement: “If something is a dog, then it is a mammal. Fido is a dog. Therefore, Fido is a mammal.”

C. Deductive

Which fallacy involves using emotional manipulation instead of logical support?

A. Appeal to emotion

Which of the following is a sign of poor abductive reasoning? A. The explanation is testable B. The explanation is simple C. The explanation requires rejecting basic scientific laws D. The explanation accounts for many phenomena

C. The explanation requires rejecting basic scientific laws

Which of the following best describes deductive validity?

B. The premises guarantee the truth of the conclusion

Inductive reasoning moves from specific observations to broader generalizations. T or F

True

Forming a general belief based on one or two examples is called a hasty generalization. T or F

True

Abductive reasoning always produces conclusions that are guaranteed to be true. T or F

False

Confirmation bias makes us more likely to notice evidence that contradicts our beliefs. T or F

False

Circular reasoning occurs when the conclusion is already assumed in one of the premises. T or F

True

Inductive reasoning guarantees that the conclusion must be true if the premises are true. T or F

False

Deductive reasoning moves from general principles to specific cases. T or F

True

Affirming the consequent is a valid form of conditional reasoning. T or F

False

Abductive reasoning aims to find the most likely or best explanation. T or F

True

Denying the consequent is a valid logical form. T or F

True

Which of the following best describes deductive reasoning? A. Observing patterns and making generalizations B. Applying general rules to specific cases C. Choosing the most likely explanation D. Guessing based on intuition

B. Applying general rules to specific cases

Which of the following is best classified as inductive reasoning? A. All birds have wings. A robin is a bird. Therefore, a robin has wings. B. If you don’t water plants, they die. This plant died, so it wasn’t watered. C. Every time I’ve eaten at that restaurant, the service was slow, so it’s probably always slow. D. If you study, you’ll pass. You studied, so you passed.

C. Every time I’ve eaten at that restaurant, the service was slow, so it’s probably always slow

Which of the following arguments is logically flawed? A. If it’s a cat, then it’s an animal. It’s a cat, so it’s an animal. B. If it rains, the streets get wet. The streets are wet, so it must have rained. C. If you don’t eat, you’ll be hungry. You’re not hungry, so you must have eaten. D. All squares have four sides. This shape is a square, so it has four sides.

B. If it rains, the streets get wet. The streets are wet, so it must have rained

What kind of reasoning is this: “You hear scratching in the walls, so you conclude there are probably mice.”

C. Abductive

Which of the following is a valid example of a hypothetical syllogism?

C. If I oversleep, I’ll miss class. If I miss class, I’ll fall behind. Therefore, if I oversleep, I’ll fall behind