Physiology and Pathophysiology Study Guide

This set of flashcards covers various key concepts in physiology and pathophysiology, including definitions, processes, and structures fundamental to the study of human biology.

What is the study of Physiology?

Physiology is the study of the normal functioning of a living organism and its component parts.

What are negative feedback loops?

Negative feedback loops are homeostatic processes that stabilize variables by counteracting stimuli and shutting off the response loop.

Define Pathophysiology.

Pathophysiology is the study of the disrupted physiological processes that cause disease or result from it.

What is homeostasis?

Homeostasis is the maintenance of a relatively stable internal environment, where variables may fluctuate slightly but are kept within a healthy range.

What type of study allows subjects to switch between control and experimental treatments?

A crossover study allows subjects to switch between control and experimental treatments.

What is a placebo?

A placebo is a substance or treatment with no active physiological effect, given to subjects in an experiment to mimic the real treatment.

What is a hypothesis?

A hypothesis is a testable, educated guess or possible explanation for an observation.

Define a theory in scientific terms.

A theory is a broad, well-supported scientific explanation for a natural phenomenon based on repeated experimental evidence.

What is the function of glycosylated molecules?

Glycosylated molecules help with cell recognition, protection, communication, and structure, especially in the cell membrane. Molecules attached to carbohydrates

What are the three types of carbohydrates?

Monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides.

What distinguishes essential amino acids?

Essential amino acids are those that the human body cannot synthesize on its own in sufficient amounts and must be obtained from the diet.

What is the structure of a fatty acid?

A fatty acid is made of a long chain of carbon and hydrogen atoms with a carboxyl group at the end.

What does ATP stand for?

ATP stands for adenosine triphosphate.

How does a buffer system function to maintain pH?

A buffer system helps maintain pH by neutralizing acids and bases to keep bodily fluids within a normal pH range.

What role do endocrine glands play in the body?

Endocrine glands release hormones into the bloodstream for long-distance communication and play a major role in homeostasis.

Describe apoptosis.

Apoptosis is programmed cell death, a normal controlled process where cells self-destruct when no longer needed or if damaged.

What is the main function of the Golgi complex?

The Golgi complex modifies, sorts, packages, and ships proteins and lipids.

What is the primary role of the nucleus in a cell?

The nucleus stores and protects DNA, directs protein synthesis, and regulates cell activities.

What is a microfilament?

Microfilaments are protein fibers that support muscle contraction and cell movement.

Name the four primary tissue types.

Epithelial, connective, muscle, and neural.

What do cations represent?

Cations are ions with a positive electrical charge.

Teleological Approach

Explains the why, describing the purpose or goal

Mechanistic Approach

Explains the how, detailing the processes and mechanisms involved in physiological functions.

Positive feedback

is a process that amplifies responses and processes in the body, often leading to a greater effect or change, such as in childbirth. Not homeostatic

Local control

is a regulatory mechanism in which a tissue or organ responds to changes in its immediate environment without involving the nervous system or hormones.

Reflex Control 

is a regulatory mechanism that involves the nervous system, allowing an automatic response to a stimulus, often maintaining homeostasis in the body through feedback loops.

Feedback Forward Control

is a mechanism that anticipates changes in the body and initiates responses proactively, often used to prepare for expected demands or challenges.

Meta-analysis

is a statistical analysis that combines the results of multiple scientific studies to identify patterns, trends, or overall effects.

Independent Variable

is the variable in an experiment that is manipulated or controlled to test its effects

Dependent Variable

is the variable that is measured or tested in an experiment to assess the effects of the independent variable.

Elements that make up more than 90% of the body’s mass

are oxygen, carbon, hydrogen

Monosaccharides

are the simplest form of carbohydrates, consisting of single sugar molecules like glucose, fructose, galactose, Ribose, and Deoxyribose

Disaccharides

are carbohydrates formed by two monosaccharide molecules, such as sucrose, maltose, and lactose.

Polysaccharides

are complex carbohydrates composed of long chains of monosaccharide units. They include starch, glycogen, and cellulose.

Glycogen

is a multi-branched polysaccharide that serves as a form of energy storage in animals, primarily found in the liver and muscles.

Starch

is a polysaccharide that functions as a major energy reserve in plants, composed of long chains of glucose units.

cellulose

is a complex carbohydrate that forms the structural component of the cell walls in green plants, consisting of long chains of glucose units linked by beta-1,4-glycosidic bonds. Humans cannot digest it.

Structure of amino acids

refers to the specific arrangement of atoms within an amino acid molecule, characterized by a central carbon atom bonded to an amino group, a carboxyl group, a hydrogen atom, and a distinctive side chain (R group) that determines the identity of the amino acid.

saturated fatty acid

is a type of fatty acid in which all carbon atoms are bonded to the maximum number of hydrogen atoms, resulting in no double bonds. They are typically solid at room temperature and are found in animal fats and certain plant oils.

unsaturated fatty acids

are fatty acids that contain one or more double bonds between carbon atoms, leading to fewer hydrogen atoms. They are typically liquid at room temperature and are found in vegetable oils and fish.

Triglycerides 

are a type of lipid composed of one glycerol molecule bonded to three fatty acid chains. They serve as a major form of energy storage in the body.

Phospholipids

are a class of lipids that contain two fatty acid molecules, a glycerol backbone, and a phosphate group. They are essential components of cell membranes, providing structural integrity and regulating permeability.

Eicosaniods

20 carbon fatty acid, acts as signaling molecule and regulates physiological functions

Steroids

built from cholesterol, hormones

Glycolipids

are lipids that consist of a carbohydrate attached to a glycerol or sphingosine backbone. They play a key role in cell recognition and membrane stability.

pH scale

measure of the concentration of hydrogen ions (H+). Logarithmic meaning each whole number change represents a 10 fold difference in hydrogen ion concentration. It ranges from 0 to 14, with lower values indicating acidity and higher values indicating alkalinity.

Phospholipid Bilayer

a fundamental component of cell membranes, consisting of two layers of phospholipids with hydrophobic tails facing inward and hydrophilic heads facing outward.

Nucleolus

a dense structure within the nucleus responsible for ribosomal RNA (rRNA) synthesis and ribosome assembly.

Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum

a membrane-bound organelle involved in the synthesis and processing of proteins, characterized by ribosomes on its surface.

Smooth Endoplasmic reticulum

a membrane-bound organelle involved in lipid synthesis and detoxification processes, lacking ribosomes on its surface.

Golgi Complex

a membrane-bound organelle that modifies, sorts, and packages proteins and lipids for secretion or delivery to other organelles.

Centrioles

cylinder-shaped structures involved in cell division and organization of the spindle fibers.

Ribosomes

cellular structures that synthesize proteins by translating messenger RNA.

Mitochondria

double membrane-bound organelles known as the powerhouses of the cell, generating ATP through cellular respiration.

lysosomes

membrane-bound organelles containing enzymes that break down waste materials and cellular debris. Break down bacteria and old organelles

Peroxisomes

membrane-bound organelles that contain enzymes for oxidation reactions, helping to break down fatty acids and detoxify harmful substances.

Cytoskeleton

a network of protein filaments and tubules that provides structural support to the cell, facilitates cell movement, and plays a role in intracellular transport, internal organization, and movement. 

Microfilaments

thin protein filaments composed of actin that play a key role in cell movement, shape, division, and contraction.

Intermediate filaments

a type of cytoskeletal element that provides mechanical support and helps maintain the overall shape and integrity of the cell, playing a crucial role in maintaining cell stability. Form desmosomes.

Microtubules 

hollow tubes made of tubulin proteins that are essential for maintaining cell shape, enabling intracellular transport, and facilitating cell division by forming the mitotic spindle. Forms cilia/flagella/ 

Types of cell junctions

Gap junctions, tight junctions, desmosomes, hemidesmosomes

Gap junction

a type of cell junction that allows for direct communication between neighboring cells by forming channels that permit the passage of ions and small molecules. Found in the heart and smooth muscles.

tight junction 

a type of cell junction that prevents the passage of materials between cells, forming a barrier that isolates the tissue environment and maintains polarity. Creates seal to prevent leakage, occluding junctions found in the intestinal lining and stomach lining. 

Desmosome

a type of cell junction that provides structural support by anchoring adjacent cells together through intermediate filaments, ensuring tissue integrity and resistance to mechanical stress. Commonly found in epidermis and cardiac tissue.

Hemidesmosomes

anchoring junctions that connect epithelial cells to the underlying basement membrane. They play a crucial role in maintaining tissue stability and integrity.

Epithelial tissue

A type of tissue composed of closely packed cells that line the surfaces and cavities of organs, providing protection, secretion, and absorption. It serves as a barrier and is involved in various functions such as sensation and transport.

Transporting epithelium

Apical: faces lumen

Basolateral: faces external cell memrabne

selectively moves substances between a lumen and the ECF

Ciliated and protective epithelia

are types of epithelial tissue that have cilia on their surface, aiding in the movement of substances across the epithelial layer, while also providing a protective barrier against pathogens and environmental damage. These epithelia are important in respiratory and reproductive systems for clearing debris and facilitating movement. Prevent exchange

Secretory Epithelia 

are specialized epithelial cells that produce and secrete various substances such as hormones, enzymes, and mucus, playing a crucial role in glandular functions.

exocrine glands

are glands that secrete their products into ducts or onto surfaces, rather than directly into the bloodstream. They produce substances such as sweat, saliva, and digestive enzymes.

Connective Tissue

is a diverse group of tissues that provide support, bind other tissues together, and are involved in various functions such as storing energy, transporting substances, and protecting organs. Connective tissues include bone, blood, adipose, and cartilage.

loose connective tissue

is a type of connective tissue characterized by a loose arrangement of fibers and cells. It provides support and elasticity, serving as a framework for organs and tissues.

Dense connective tissues

are types of connective tissues characterized by tightly packed fibers that provide strength and support. They include tendons and ligaments, which connect muscles to bones and bones to each other, respectively.

Muscle tissue

is a type of tissue that is responsible for the movement of the body and its parts. It is characterized by the ability to contract and is divided into three types: skeletal, cardiac, and smooth muscle.

neural tissue

is a type of tissue that makes up the brain, spinal cord, and nerves, and is responsible for transmitting electrical signals throughout the body. It consists of neurons and glial cells which support and protect the neurons.