Unit 2 All Together + General Ques

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197 Terms

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Attention

Actively focusing on particular information while simultaneously ignoring other information

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What are the two types of information sources we can pay attention to?

Internal Stimuli & External Stimuli

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Internal Stimuli

Information or sensation that originate from within the body

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External Stimuli

Information of sensations that originate from outside the body

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What are the three different types of attention?

Sustained, Divided, Selective

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Sustained Attention

Focusing on one stimulus or task across a prolonged, continuous period of time

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Divided Attention

Splitting attention across two or more stimuli at one time

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Selective Attention

Exclusively focusing attention on a specific stimulus or task while ignoring all other stimulus or tasks

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What are the two types of selective attention?

Predictive Principle & Uncertainty Principle

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Predictive Principle

Where we focus on stimuli that are personally meaningful and important to us amongst other less meaningful stimuli

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Uncertainty Principle

Where our attention is captured the most by unpredictable or unfamiliar stimuli. This is due to the stimuli’s potential to provide useful information or news about pleasant or dangerous consequences

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Sensation

The process of receiving and detecting raw sensory information via sensory organs and sending the information to your brain

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What are our sensory organs?

Tongue, Eye, Skin, Ears, Nose

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Perception

The process of organising, and interpreting sensory information resulting in conscious awareness of our world

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What are the three stages of perception?

Selection, Organisation & Interpretation

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Selection

Attending to certain stimuli whilst excluding others

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Organisation

Regrouping stimuli for them to be cohesively arranged

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Interpretation

Understanding and assigning meaning to the information

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Visual Perception

Becoming consciously aware of visual stimuli as a result of interactions between the visual system and the environment

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Gustatory Perception

Becoming consciously aware of flavour

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What are the basic flavours?

Sweet, sour, salty, bitter, & umami

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Schemas

Organized frameworks that help individuals categorize and interpret information based on prior knowledge and experiences.

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Biological Factors in Perception

Are internal genetic and/or physiologically based factors

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What are the two photoreceptors located in the retina?

Rods and Cones

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Rods

Are photoreceptors that allow someone to see in low levels of light

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Cones

Are photoreceptors that allow someone to see colour and fine details in well-lit conditions

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Refractory Errors

Defects in the eye causing it not to bend light as it is supposed to, resulting in reduced visual activity

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Myopia

Short-sightedness due to the focal point of one or both eyes being located in front of, instead of on, the retina

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Depth Cues

Visual clues that allow someone to perceive the world in three dimensions and judge the distance and position of objects in their environment

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Monocular Depth Cues

Rely on visual information perceived by just one eye

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Binocular Depth Cues

Rely on visual information from both eyes

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Accomodation

The bulging and flattening of the lens depending on how far away an object is

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Motion Parallax

Use the perception of movement to determine how far away things are

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Pictorial Depth Cues

Aspects of paintings of drawings that can be manipulated by artists to depict depth

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What are the pictorial depth cues?

Relative size, height in visual field, linear perspective, interposition, texture gradient

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Relative Size

Objects that are relatively larger compared to others are perceived as closer

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Height in visual field

The closer objects are to the horizon line the further they appear

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Linear Perspective

Parallel lines appear to gradually converge in the distance indicating depth

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Interposition

When objects overlap with one another, we perceive the object that is covered being further away

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Texture Gradient

The greater the detail of an object the closer it appears

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Retinal Disparity

The slight difference between different images received from either eye

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Convergence

The physical turning in of our eyes to look at things up close. The strain on our eye muscles signals to the brain that the object is close

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Psychological Factors

Are internal factors pertaining to an individual’s mental processes, including cognition, affect, thoughts, beliefs and attitudes

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What are the guiding rules that apply to incoming visual information & determine how they are organised and interpreted?

Gestalt Principles & Visual Constancies

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Gestalt Principles

The guiding rules of perception that allows us to organise and group seperate visual stimuli into a meaningful whole

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What are the gestalt principles

Similarity, proximity, closure & figure ground principle

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Proximity Principle

Our brain’s tendency to group items based on their physical closeness

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Similarity Principle

The brain’s tendency to group parts of an image that are similar

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Figure-ground principle

The tendency for some figures to be seen in front of an image

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Closure Principle

Our brain’s ability to mentally complete images

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Perceptual Set

A predisposition to perceive certain features of sensory stimuli and ignore other features that are deemed irrelevant

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Social Factors

External factors relating to an individual’s interactions with others and their external environment, including their relationships and community involvement

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Culture Norms

Standards, values, or rules that outline an appropriate behaviour or experience within a culture

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What are the biological Factors of gustatory perception?

Age & Genetics

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Supertaster

A person with a heightened sensitivity to taste, typically due to genetic variation affecting taste buds, leading to stronger experiences of flavours

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Mediumtaster

A person with a moderate sensitivity to taste, falling between supertasters and non-tasters in their sensory perception

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Nontaster

A person with low sensitivity to taste, characterized by fewer taste buds and a diminished ability to perceive flavors compared to mediumtasters and supertasters.

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What can effect gustatory perception?

Perceptual set, appearance & packaging

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Psychological Factors of Gustatory Perception

The appearance of our food can contribute to our expectations of its taste and perception of its flavour

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Colour effect on gustatory perception

If a food’s colour does not match our expectations, we may taste something wrong with it, even if this is not the case

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Shape effect on gustatory perception

The shape of our food or drink, or the vessel it is in or on, may also influence our gustatory perception

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Food Packaging effect on gustatory perception

As well as the colour of food packaging, other visual information on food packaging, such as brand names, brand logos, and images can all influence the way we perceive the flavour of food

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Culture effect on gustatory perception

What foods we have grown up with influence what we decide tastes good or ‘normal’

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Fallibility

The quality of being prone to error or experiencing difficulties in judgement

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Perceptual Distortion

An error in the judgement or interpretation of sensory stimuli

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The Blind Spot

The fallibility of visual perception and the presence of perceptual distortions does not mean something is wrong, but rather demonstrates that normally functioning brains are susceptible to error

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Where is the blind spot located?

Behind Retina

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Visual Illusion

The perception of a visual stimulus that conflicts with how it is in physical reality

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Muller-Lyer Illusion

The illusion relies on the influence of the accompanying arrowheads of each line, specifically whether the line is contained within inverted arrowheads or regular arrowheads

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Ames Room Illusion

This illusion occurs when a person views two people in a special Ames Room through a peephole using only one eye

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Agnosia

A disorder involving the loss or impairment of the ability to recognise familiar stimuli through the use of one or more senses, despite the senses functioning normally otherwise

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Miraculin

Is a glycoprotein that alters taste perception, making sour foods taste sweet when consumed.

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Synaesthesia

A perceptual phenomenon characterised by the experience of unusual perceptions in one sensory system after another sensory system has been activated

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Spatial Neglect

An inability to perceive, report, or orient sensory information located within one side of space

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The room is trapezoid shaped but is perceived as rectangular

Which of the following is the best description of the Ames Room?

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Social Cognition

How we perceive, think about and use information to understand and make judgements about ourselves and others in different social situations

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Person Perception

The mental processes we use to understand and form impressions of other people

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What are the ways you can form impressions of others?

Directly & Indirectly

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Attribution

Is the process by which we explain the cause of our own or another person’s behaviour

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Internal Attribution

Is an explanation of behaviour due to the characteristics of the person involved

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External Attribution

Is an explanation of behaviour due to the factors associated with the situation the person is in

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Fundamental Attribution Error

The tendency to overestimate the influence of personal factors and underestimate the impact of situational factors on other people’s behaviour

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Attitudes

An evaluation a person makes about an object, person, group, event or issue.

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1st stage of cognitive process

Observation of an outward act of behaviour

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2nd stage of cognitive process

Conscious determination or acknowledge of the behaviour

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3rd stage of cognitive process

Attribute causes to this observed behaviour

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An evaluation of something

I don’t like pineapple on pizza (attitude)

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Settled and stable

This is something that has been constant since childhood (attitude)

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Learnt through experience

I have tried it on pizza, it’s not terrible but I will always prefer to pull it off (attitude)

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Tri-component model of attitudes (ABC MODEL)

A model which illustrates the relationship between the affective, behavioural and cognitive components of attitudes

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Affective (TRI COMPONENT MODEL)

Our emotions and intuitive feelings about something

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Behavioural (TRI COMPONENT MODEL)

Our outward and observable about something

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Cognitive (TRI COMPONENT MODEL)

Our thoughts and beliefs towards something

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Cognitive Dissonance

The psychological tension that occurs when our thoughts, feelings, and/or behaviour do not align

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Cognitive Bias

The unconscious, systematic tendencies to interpret information in a way that is neither rational nor based on objective reality

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Confirmation Bias

The tendency to search for and accept information that supports our prior beliefs or behaviours and ignore contradictory information

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Actor-Observer Bias

The tendency to attribute our own actions to external factors and situational causes while attributing other people’s actions to internal factors

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Self-Serving Bias

The tendency to attribute positive success to our internal character and actions and attribute our failures to external factors or situational causes

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False-Consensus Bias

The tendency to overestimate the degree to which other people share the same ideas and attitudes as we do

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Halo Effect

The tendency for the impression we form about one quality of a person to influence our overall beliefs about the person in other respects