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Attention
Actively focusing on particular information while simultaneously ignoring other information
What are the two types of information sources we can pay attention to?
Internal Stimuli & External Stimuli
Internal Stimuli
Information or sensation that originate from within the body
External Stimuli
Information of sensations that originate from outside the body
What are the three different types of attention?
Sustained, Divided, Selective
Sustained Attention
Focusing on one stimulus or task across a prolonged, continuous period of time
Divided Attention
Splitting attention across two or more stimuli at one time
Selective Attention
Exclusively focusing attention on a specific stimulus or task while ignoring all other stimulus or tasks
What are the two types of selective attention?
Predictive Principle & Uncertainty Principle
Predictive Principle
Where we focus on stimuli that are personally meaningful and important to us amongst other less meaningful stimuli
Uncertainty Principle
Where our attention is captured the most by unpredictable or unfamiliar stimuli. This is due to the stimuli’s potential to provide useful information or news about pleasant or dangerous consequences
Sensation
The process of receiving and detecting raw sensory information via sensory organs and sending the information to your brain
What are our sensory organs?
Tongue, Eye, Skin, Ears, Nose
Perception
The process of organising, and interpreting sensory information resulting in conscious awareness of our world
What are the three stages of perception?
Selection, Organisation & Interpretation
Selection
Attending to certain stimuli whilst excluding others
Organisation
Regrouping stimuli for them to be cohesively arranged
Interpretation
Understanding and assigning meaning to the information
Visual Perception
Becoming consciously aware of visual stimuli as a result of interactions between the visual system and the environment
Gustatory Perception
Becoming consciously aware of flavour
What are the basic flavours?
Sweet, sour, salty, bitter, & umami
Schemas
Organized frameworks that help individuals categorize and interpret information based on prior knowledge and experiences.
Biological Factors in Perception
Are internal genetic and/or physiologically based factors
What are the two photoreceptors located in the retina?
Rods and Cones
Rods
Are photoreceptors that allow someone to see in low levels of light
Cones
Are photoreceptors that allow someone to see colour and fine details in well-lit conditions
Refractory Errors
Defects in the eye causing it not to bend light as it is supposed to, resulting in reduced visual activity
Myopia
Short-sightedness due to the focal point of one or both eyes being located in front of, instead of on, the retina
Depth Cues
Visual clues that allow someone to perceive the world in three dimensions and judge the distance and position of objects in their environment
Monocular Depth Cues
Rely on visual information perceived by just one eye
Binocular Depth Cues
Rely on visual information from both eyes
Accomodation
The bulging and flattening of the lens depending on how far away an object is
Motion Parallax
Use the perception of movement to determine how far away things are
Pictorial Depth Cues
Aspects of paintings of drawings that can be manipulated by artists to depict depth
What are the pictorial depth cues?
Relative size, height in visual field, linear perspective, interposition, texture gradient
Relative Size
Objects that are relatively larger compared to others are perceived as closer
Height in visual field
The closer objects are to the horizon line the further they appear
Linear Perspective
Parallel lines appear to gradually converge in the distance indicating depth
Interposition
When objects overlap with one another, we perceive the object that is covered being further away
Texture Gradient
The greater the detail of an object the closer it appears
Retinal Disparity
The slight difference between different images received from either eye
Convergence
The physical turning in of our eyes to look at things up close. The strain on our eye muscles signals to the brain that the object is close
Psychological Factors
Are internal factors pertaining to an individual’s mental processes, including cognition, affect, thoughts, beliefs and attitudes
What are the guiding rules that apply to incoming visual information & determine how they are organised and interpreted?
Gestalt Principles & Visual Constancies
Gestalt Principles
The guiding rules of perception that allows us to organise and group seperate visual stimuli into a meaningful whole
What are the gestalt principles
Similarity, proximity, closure & figure ground principle
Proximity Principle
Our brain’s tendency to group items based on their physical closeness
Similarity Principle
The brain’s tendency to group parts of an image that are similar
Figure-ground principle
The tendency for some figures to be seen in front of an image
Closure Principle
Our brain’s ability to mentally complete images
Perceptual Set
A predisposition to perceive certain features of sensory stimuli and ignore other features that are deemed irrelevant
Social Factors
External factors relating to an individual’s interactions with others and their external environment, including their relationships and community involvement
Culture Norms
Standards, values, or rules that outline an appropriate behaviour or experience within a culture
What are the biological Factors of gustatory perception?
Age & Genetics
Supertaster
A person with a heightened sensitivity to taste, typically due to genetic variation affecting taste buds, leading to stronger experiences of flavours
Mediumtaster
A person with a moderate sensitivity to taste, falling between supertasters and non-tasters in their sensory perception
Nontaster
A person with low sensitivity to taste, characterized by fewer taste buds and a diminished ability to perceive flavors compared to mediumtasters and supertasters.
What can effect gustatory perception?
Perceptual set, appearance & packaging
Psychological Factors of Gustatory Perception
The appearance of our food can contribute to our expectations of its taste and perception of its flavour
Colour effect on gustatory perception
If a food’s colour does not match our expectations, we may taste something wrong with it, even if this is not the case
Shape effect on gustatory perception
The shape of our food or drink, or the vessel it is in or on, may also influence our gustatory perception
Food Packaging effect on gustatory perception
As well as the colour of food packaging, other visual information on food packaging, such as brand names, brand logos, and images can all influence the way we perceive the flavour of food
Culture effect on gustatory perception
What foods we have grown up with influence what we decide tastes good or ‘normal’
Fallibility
The quality of being prone to error or experiencing difficulties in judgement
Perceptual Distortion
An error in the judgement or interpretation of sensory stimuli
The Blind Spot
The fallibility of visual perception and the presence of perceptual distortions does not mean something is wrong, but rather demonstrates that normally functioning brains are susceptible to error
Where is the blind spot located?
Behind Retina
Visual Illusion
The perception of a visual stimulus that conflicts with how it is in physical reality
Muller-Lyer Illusion
The illusion relies on the influence of the accompanying arrowheads of each line, specifically whether the line is contained within inverted arrowheads or regular arrowheads
Ames Room Illusion
This illusion occurs when a person views two people in a special Ames Room through a peephole using only one eye
Agnosia
A disorder involving the loss or impairment of the ability to recognise familiar stimuli through the use of one or more senses, despite the senses functioning normally otherwise
Miraculin
Is a glycoprotein that alters taste perception, making sour foods taste sweet when consumed.
Synaesthesia
A perceptual phenomenon characterised by the experience of unusual perceptions in one sensory system after another sensory system has been activated
Spatial Neglect
An inability to perceive, report, or orient sensory information located within one side of space
The room is trapezoid shaped but is perceived as rectangular
Which of the following is the best description of the Ames Room?
Social Cognition
How we perceive, think about and use information to understand and make judgements about ourselves and others in different social situations
Person Perception
The mental processes we use to understand and form impressions of other people
What are the ways you can form impressions of others?
Directly & Indirectly
Attribution
Is the process by which we explain the cause of our own or another person’s behaviour
Internal Attribution
Is an explanation of behaviour due to the characteristics of the person involved
External Attribution
Is an explanation of behaviour due to the factors associated with the situation the person is in
Fundamental Attribution Error
The tendency to overestimate the influence of personal factors and underestimate the impact of situational factors on other people’s behaviour
Attitudes
An evaluation a person makes about an object, person, group, event or issue.
1st stage of cognitive process
Observation of an outward act of behaviour
2nd stage of cognitive process
Conscious determination or acknowledge of the behaviour
3rd stage of cognitive process
Attribute causes to this observed behaviour
An evaluation of something
I don’t like pineapple on pizza (attitude)
Settled and stable
This is something that has been constant since childhood (attitude)
Learnt through experience
I have tried it on pizza, it’s not terrible but I will always prefer to pull it off (attitude)
Tri-component model of attitudes (ABC MODEL)
A model which illustrates the relationship between the affective, behavioural and cognitive components of attitudes
Affective (TRI COMPONENT MODEL)
Our emotions and intuitive feelings about something
Behavioural (TRI COMPONENT MODEL)
Our outward and observable about something
Cognitive (TRI COMPONENT MODEL)
Our thoughts and beliefs towards something
Cognitive Dissonance
The psychological tension that occurs when our thoughts, feelings, and/or behaviour do not align
Cognitive Bias
The unconscious, systematic tendencies to interpret information in a way that is neither rational nor based on objective reality
Confirmation Bias
The tendency to search for and accept information that supports our prior beliefs or behaviours and ignore contradictory information
Actor-Observer Bias
The tendency to attribute our own actions to external factors and situational causes while attributing other people’s actions to internal factors
Self-Serving Bias
The tendency to attribute positive success to our internal character and actions and attribute our failures to external factors or situational causes
False-Consensus Bias
The tendency to overestimate the degree to which other people share the same ideas and attitudes as we do
Halo Effect
The tendency for the impression we form about one quality of a person to influence our overall beliefs about the person in other respects