functionalism and crime

over functionalist idea

Functionalists see society as a social system made up of institutions (family, education, religion, law) working together to maintain:

• Social order

• Value consensus

• Stability

Consensus theories assume:

• Society is based on shared values

• Most people agree on right and wrong

• Laws reflect collective interests

• Crime disrupts social order but can also serve functions

Crime and deviance are not seen as purely negative — functionalists argue they can be:

• Inevitable

• Functional

• A sign that society is adapting

Durkheim

Crime is Inevitable

Crime exists in every society because:

• Individuals are different

• Socialisation is never perfect

• Rules cannot cover every situation

• Modern societies are complex

➡ Crime is therefore normal

• Crime Has Positive Functions:

Boundary Maintenance

Crime clarifies moral boundaries:

Society responds with punishment

• This reinforces shared values

• Strengthens social solidarity

• process through which society reaffirms shared values and norms by responding to crime, uniting members in condemnation of the wrongdoer, and strengthening social solidarity.

Example:

Outrage at terrorism reinforces collective belief in human rights

Adaptation and Change

Deviance can highlight outdated norms and promote progress.

Example:

Civil rights activists broke laws → led to reforms

• LGBTQ+ rights movements were once criminalised

Crime can act as a warning sign that society must change.

Social Cohesion

Public reaction to crime unites society:

Media coverage

• Shared condemnation

• Collective identity strengthened

DURKHEIM: anomie and modern society

• Durkheim argued crime increases during periods of anomie.

Anomie = Normlessness

Occurs when:

Social regulation breaks down

• People feel disconnected

• Rules become unclear

• Economic crises

Common during:

Rapid social change

• Industrialisation

➡ Individuals become more likely to deviate.

Evaluation

• Useful for explaining crime in unstable societies

• But too vague — doesn’t explain specific crimes

Davies - deviance as a safety valve

Safety Valve Theory

Certain deviant acts prevent greater disruption.

• Men use sex workers to relieve stress and prevent sexual frustration with their wives as partners at home

• high earner - use drugs

• alcohol, clubbing, drugs, smoking

• Similar minor deviance, like drinking, clubbing, or drug use, can relieve tension and prevent more serious crimes or social breakdowns.

Example:

Prostitution provides a sexual outlet

• Prevents adultery or family breakdown

Thus, prostitution is functional for:

Family stability

• Social order

A . Cohen - Warning sign

• deviance can act as a warning sign showing that something in society isn’t working properly.

• Example - high levels of truancy can indicate problems with the education system than needs addressing

• deviance can help identify areas where social change or reform is needed.

Merton - strain theory

• Strain Between Goals and Means

  Society teaches cultural goals:

  Wealth

  • Status

  • Success

But access to legitimate means is unequal.

Working-class people experience strain because:

Education failure

• Unemployment

• Poverty

➡ Crime becomes an adaptation:

• Every society sets cultural goals ( wealth and success and provides means (education and works to achieve them.

• In the USA, the American dream promotes success and material wealth for all, but not everyone has equal access to achieve it legitimately.

• This creates a strain between goals and means

• Some individuals respond with crime and deviance to achieve success

• Crime results from the pressure created by the gap between socially approved goals and limited opportunities to achieve them

Utilitarian vs Non-Utilitarian Crime

Utilitarian crime

• Material gain

• Robbery, fraud, burglary

• ✅ Utilitarian Crime (crime with a goal)

  When Merton mentions utilitarian crime, he means:

  • Crime that is committed for practical gain

  • Crime that has a clear purpose or reward

  • Usually linked to achieving money or success

  Examples:

  • Theft

  • Robbery

  • Drug dealing

  • Fraud

  Why it happens (Merton’s view):

  Society encourages everyone to aim for material success (wealth, status), but not everyone has equal access to legitimate ways (like education or good jobs).

  So some people turn to crime as an alternative route.

  This is often linked to his adaptation called:

  ➡ Innovation (accepting the goal but using illegitimate means)

He struggles to explain:

Non-utilitarian crime

• Violence, vandalism

• Joyriding

• Hate crime

• ❌ Non-Utilitarian Crime (crime without a material goal)

  Non-utilitarian crime refers to:

  • Crime that is not committed for financial benefit

  • Crime that has no obvious practical reward

  • Often emotional, expressive, or rebellious

  Examples:

  • Vandalism

  • Violence from anger

  • Joyriding

  • Assault

  How Merton explains this:

  These crimes may happen when people experience strain and frustration, but instead of trying to gain success, they may:

  • Reject society’s goals completely

  • Act out through aggression or rebellion

  This connects more to adaptations like:

  ➡ Retreatism (dropping out)
  ➡ Rebellion (rejecting and replacing goals)

Evaluation of Merton

✅ Explains link between inequality and crime
❌ Ignores crimes of the powerful
❌ Too focused on working-class males
❌ Doesn’t explain expressive crime

functionalist subcultural theories

COHEN: STATUS FRUSTRATION AND DELINQUENT SUBCULTURES

Status Frustration:

Working-class boys fail in school because:

School rewards middle-class values

• They lack cultural capital

• They are labelled as failures

This creates resentment and frustration.

Reaction Formation

They form a delinquent subculture where:

Anti-school values become status symbols

• Crime earns respect

• Norms are inverted

Crimes are often non-utilitarian

Examples:

Vandalism

• Fighting

• Truancy

➡ Done for status, not money.

Evaluation

✅ Explains gang delinquency
❌ Assumes all boys share same goals
❌ Ignores female crime
❌ Doesn’t explain adult crime

CLOWARD AND OHLIN: OPPORTUNITY STRUCTURES

Not everyone has equal access to:

• Legitimate opportunities

• Illegitimate opportunities

Three Subcultures:

Criminal Subculture

• Stable deprived areas

• Organised crime networks

• Crime is learned through role models

Example:

Drug gangs

Conflict Subculture

• Disorganised areas

• No stable criminal hierarchy

• Violence gives status

Example:

Territorial street gangs

Retreatism Subculture

• Fail in both worlds

• Escape through drugs/alcohol

➡ “Double failures.

Evaluation

✅ Explains different crime patterns
❌ Deterministic
❌ Overlooks choice and power”

OVERALL FUNCTIONALIST VIEW

Functionalists argue crime is:

• Inevitable

• Normal

• Sometimes beneficial

Crime contributes to:

• Boundary maintenance

• Social cohesion

• Adaptation and change

• Safety valve release

• Social regulation

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AO3 evaluations:

Marxist Criticism

Functionalism ignores class power:

Laws benefit ruling class

• Working-class crime is over-policed

• Corporate crime is under-punished

Feminist Criticism

Functionalism ignores patriarchy:

Male violence against women

• Domestic abuse

• Sexual crime

Crime is not functional for victims.

Interactionist Criticism

Functionalism assumes shared values:

Deviance is socially constructed

• Laws reflect power, not consensus

Durkheim — Crime is Inevitable

Q: Why does Durkheim argue crime is inevitable in all societies?

• Society is diverse and complex

• Not everyone is equally socialised

• Rules cannot cover every situation

• Therefore crime is normal and unavoidable

➡ Crime exists in every “healthy” society.

Durkheim — Positive Functions of Crime

Q: What are the positive functions of crime according to Durkheim?

• Reinforces shared norms and values

• Maintains social boundaries

• Promotes social change

• Strengthens social cohesion through collective reactions

➡ Crime can contribute to stability.

Boundary Maintenance

Q: What is boundary maintenance?

• Crime clarifies moral boundaries

• Punishment reminds society what is acceptable

• Reinforces the collective conscience

• Strengthens social solidarity

Example: Public condemnation of murder reinforces value of life.

Adaptation and Change

Q: How can deviance lead to social change?

• Deviance can highlight outdated laws

• Society may reform norms over time

• Some criminals become seen as pioneers

Example: Suffragettes were criminalised but helped achieve women’s rights.

Crime as a Warning Sign

Q: Why does Durkheim see deviance as a warning sign

• Rising crime may show social regulation is weakening

• Indicates society needs adaptation

• Helps prevent stagnation

➡ Crime can signal necessary reform.

Anomie

Q: What is anomie and how does it link to crime?

• Anomie = normlessness

• Occurs during rapid social change or crisis

• People feel disconnected from society

• Weak social control increases deviance

Example: Crime rises during economic recession.

Davis — Safety Valve

Q: What is Davis’ safety valve theory?

• Some deviance releases social tension

• Prevents greater disruption

• Prostitution acts as an outlet, protecting family stability

➡ Deviance can reduce pressure in society.

Merton — Strain Theory

Q: What is strain theory (Merton)?

• Society promotes success goals (wealth)

• Not everyone has equal legitimate means

• This creates strain

• People adapt through deviance, especially innovation

➡ Crime is caused by blocked opportunities.

Innovation (Utilitarian Crime)

Q: What is innovation in Merton’s theory?

• Accepts cultural goals

• Rejects legitimate means

• Uses crime to achieve success

Example: Theft, fraud, drug dealing

➡ Mainly explains utilitarian crime.

Utilitarian vs Non-Utilitarian Crime

Q: What is the difference between utilitarian and non-utilitarian crime?

• Utilitarian = material gain (robbery, burglary)

• Non-utilitarian = expressive/violent (vandalism, assault)

• Merton explains utilitarian crime better than non-utilitarian.

Cohen — Status Frustration

Q: What is status frustration (Cohen)?

• Working-class boys fail in school

• Education rewards middle-class values

• They experience status deprivation

• Form delinquent subcultures for respect

➡ Crime becomes a way to gain status.

Non-Utilitarian Delinquency

Q: Why does Cohen argue working-class delinquency is often non-utilitarian?

• Crime is not for money

• It is for peer approval and status

• Acts like vandalism and fighting are symbolic

Cloward and Ohlin — Opportunity Structures

Q: What are illegitimate opportunity structures?

• Access to criminal opportunities varies by area

• Some communities offer organised crime routes

• Different subcultures develop depending on opportunity

Three Subcultures (Cloward & Ohlin)

Q: What are the three delinquent subcultures?

• Criminal = organised theft

• Conflict = violence + gangs

• Retreatist = drugs, “double failures

AO3 Evaluation of Functionalism

• Marxists: ignores power and ruling-class crime

• Feminists: ignores patriarchy and male violence

• Interactionists: assumes value consensus

• Right Realists: crime is harmful, not functional