2nd Psych Test Pt2

Social psychology

Study of how people think about, influence, and relate to one another.

Social psychologists

Scientists who study how situations shape thoughts, feelings, and behaviors.

Attribution theory (Fritz Heider)

We explain behavior by attributing it to personality or to the situation.

Dispositional attribution

Explaining someone’s behavior through their personality traits.

Situational attribution

Explaining someone’s behavior through external circumstances.

Fundamental attribution error

Tendency to overestimate traits and underestimate the situation when judging others.

Cognitive dissonance

Discomfort from conflicting thoughts; we change attitudes to reduce tension.

Social influence

How other people affect our behavior, attitudes, and decisions.

Norms

Accepted rules for expected behavior in a group.

Social networks

Social connections that spread emotions, behaviors, and ideas.

Conformity

Adjusting behavior or thinking to match a group.

Solomon Asch line studies

Showed people conform even when the group is clearly wrong.

When is conformity most likely?

When group is unanimous, 3+ people, we feel insecure, admire group, are watched, or culture values harmony.

Stanley Milgram shock studies

Found people obey authority even when harming others.

Philip Zimbardo prison experiment

Showed roles and situations can produce abusive behavior.

Deindividuation

Loss of self-awareness and self-restraint in group situations.

Social facilitation

Better performance on easy tasks and worse on difficult tasks when others are present.

Social loafing

People put in less effort when working in a group.

Bystander effect

People are less likely to help when others are present due to diffusion of responsibility.

Group polarization

Group discussion strengthens shared beliefs.

Groupthink

Desire for harmony leads to poor decisions and failure to consider alternatives.

Developmental psychology

Study of physical, cognitive, and social changes across life.

Cross-sectional studies

Compare different age groups at a single point in time.

Longitudinal studies

Follow the same people over many years.

Teratogen

Harmful substance that can damage a fetus.

Developmental milestones

Predictable ages when children reach abilities like walking or talking.

Sensorimotor stage

Birth–2 years; learning through senses and actions.

Stranger anxiety

Fear of strangers beginning around 8 months.

Object permanence

Knowing objects exist even when not seen.

Preoperational stage

Ages 2–7; language develops but thinking lacks logic.

Pretend play

Using imagination to represent objects and roles.

Egocentrism

Difficulty seeing from another person's perspective.

Concrete operational stage

Ages 7–11; logical thinking about concrete situations.

Conservation

Understanding quantity stays the same despite changes in shape.

Formal operational stage

Ages 12+; abstract and hypothetical thinking.

Trust vs mistrust

Infants learn whether the world is safe and reliable.

Autonomy vs shame and doubt

Toddlers learn independence or feel doubt.

Initiative vs guilt

Preschoolers start tasks or feel guilty for trying.

Competence vs inferiority

Children learn skills or feel inadequate.

Identity vs role confusion

Teens explore their identity and sense of self.

Intimacy vs isolation

 Young adults form close relationships or feel alone.

Generativity vs stagnation

Middle adults contribute to society or feel unproductive.

Integrity vs despair

Older adults reflect with satisfaction or regret.

Personality

A person’s enduring pattern of thoughts, feelings, and behaviors.

Psychoanalysis

Freud’s theory that unconscious motives and childhood shape personality.

Psychodynamic theories

View behavior as the result of unconscious and conscious interactions.

Sigmund Freud

Founder of psychoanalysis; emphasized unconscious and early childhood.

Unconscious

Hidden thoughts, desires, and memories outside awareness.

Preconscious

Information just below awareness, easily accessed.

Id

Seeks pleasure and immediate gratification.

Ego

Balances the id with reality using the reality principle.

Superego

Moral conscience; internalized ideals and values.

Oral stage

Pleasure centers on the mouth (0–18 months).

Anal stage

Focus on bowel and bladder control (18 months–3 years).

Phallic stage

Focus on genitals and identity (3–6 years).

Latency stage

Period of dormant sexual feelings (6–puberty).

Genital stage

Mature sexual interests (puberty onward).

Identification

Children incorporate parents’ values and form gender identity.

Fixation

Being stuck in a psychosexual stage due to unresolved conflict.

Repression

Blocking painful thoughts from awareness.

Regression

Retreating to earlier behaviors under stress.

Reaction formation

Acting opposite of true feelings.

Projection

Attributing your own feelings to someone else.

Trait theory

Describes personality using stable traits.

Conscientiousness

Being organized, responsible, and careful.

Agreeableness

Being friendly, trusting, and helpful.

Neuroticism

Emotional instability, anxiety, and moodiness.

Openness

Being imaginative, curious, and open-minded.

Extraversion

Being outgoing, sociable, and energetic.

Motivation

A need or desire that energizes and directs behavior.

Maslow’s hierarchy of needs

Pyramid of human needs from basic survival to full potential.

Physiological needs

Food, water, rest, and basic survival.

Safety needs

Security, stability, and safety.

Belongingness and love needs

Need for relationships, acceptance, and connection.

Esteem needs

Need for achievement, respect, and confidence.

Self-actualization needs

Reaching full potential and becoming your best self.