personality

What two assumptions underlie psychometric measurement of mental constructs?

(1) The constructs exist. (2) They can be measured and quantified

Define personality as per APA and list its key assumptions

Personality refers to individual differences in characteristic patterns of thinking, feeling, and behaving.
Assumptions: it is stable over time, influences behaviour, and consists of a finite number of measurable dimensions (traits)

Hippocrates (c. 400 BC) proposed four temperaments based on bodily humours

• Sanguine (blood): sociable, carefree

• Choleric (yellow bile): ambitious, hot-tempered

• Melancholic (black bile): analytical, despondent

• Phlegmatic (phlegm): calm, passive

What does factor analysis achieve in personality psychology?

Identifies clusters of inter-correlated questionnaire items (factors) that represent underlying personality dimensions; items correlate highly within a factor but weakly with others

Name and briefly describe the Big Five personality factors

• OCEAN

• Openness to experience: inventive / curious vs consistent / cautious

• Conscientiousness: organised / efficient vs careless / easy-going

• Extraversion: outgoing / energetic vs reserved / solitary

• Agreeableness: compassionate / friendly vs detached / analytical

• Neuroticism: sensitive / nervous vs secure / confident

How did Eysenck reduce Cattell’s factors and what third factor did he later add?

Reduced to two dimensions; Extraversion/Introversion and Neuroticism (emotional stability vs instability) mapped onto Hippocrates’ humours.
Later added Psychoticism (a misnomer referring to aggression, coldness, and lack of empathy).

What is the most widely used scale for the Big Five and what are its properties?

NEO-PI-R (240 items; 5-point scale; 6 facets per trait)

How do Eysenck’s dimensions map onto the Big Five?

Extraversion and Neuroticism correspond directly; Psychoticism overlaps negatively with Agreeableness and Conscientiousness

What cross-cultural findings support and challenge universality of the Big Five?

• Support: McCrae et al. (1998) American, French, Filipino samples all yielded Big Five factors.

• Challenge: Gurven et al. (2012) Tsimane (Bolivian) sample produced only two factors: Prosociality and Industriousness.

What did Jang et al. (1996) find regarding twin correlations for Big Five traits?

All traits show genetic influence (MZ > DZ)

Summarise De Young et al. (2010) findings on brain structure correlates of the Big Five.

• Conscientiousness → middle frontal gyrus

• Extraversion → medial orbitofrontal cortex (reward/inhibition)

• Agreeableness → superior temporal sulcus (social cognition)

• Neuroticism → amygdala and related limbic regions

• Openness → no consistent region

What two key questions remain about trait models?

(1) How many traits truly exist - are five super-traits sufficient?
(2) Are there important aspects of personality beyond the Big Five (e.g., maladaptive or “dark” traits)?

Define the Dark Triad traits

• Narcissism: attention-seeking, arrogance, entitlement.

• Psychopathy: callousness, lack of remorse, cynicism.

• Machiavellianism: manipulation and strategic deceit for personal gain

What did Holtzman & Strube (2013) find about attractiveness and Dark Triad traits?

Individuals scoring higher on Dark Triad measures were rated as more physically attractive by opposite-sex strangers

Can facial appearance reveal Dark Triad traits?

Composite-photo studies (Holtzman 2011) show observers reliably associate high-trait faces with descriptors such as “reckless, antagonistic, assertive,” indicating some perceptible cues to personality

How do the Dark Triad traits map onto the Big Five dimensions?

• Low Agreeableness strongly underpins all three.

• Low Conscientiousness associates with Psychopathy.

• High Extraversion partially overlaps with Narcissism.
  (From Paulhus & Williams 2002.)

What evidence supports the temporal stability of the Big Five?

• Cobb-Clark & Schurer (2012): >6000 adults over 4 years → high rank-order correlations.

• Soldz & Vaillant (1999): 123 men over 45 years → strong correlations for Neuroticism, Openness, Extraversion.
  Conclusion: personality traits show high stability across decades.