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Arrhenius Acids
Produce H+ ions in water, act as electrolytes.
Arrhenius Bases
Produce OH- ions in water, act as electrolytes.
Neutralization
Reaction where acids and bases neutralize each other.
Hydroxide
Anions with OH-; form bases like NaOH.
Bronsted-Lowry Acids
Donate protons (H+) in reactions.
Bronsted-Lowry Bases
Accept protons (H+) in reactions.
Sour Taste
Characteristic flavor of acids like HCl.
Bitter Taste
Characteristic flavor of bases like NaOH.
Electrolytes
Substances that conduct electricity in solution.
Conjugate Acid-Base Pairs
Acid and base related by H+ transfer.
Hydrochloric Acid
Strong acid, formula HCl, found in stomach.
Sulfuric Acid
Strong acid, formula H2SO4, used in batteries.
Nitric Acid
Strong acid, formula HNO3, used in fertilizers.
Hydrobromic Acid
Strong acid, formula HBr, used in synthesis.
Hydrocyanic Acid
Weak acid, formula HCN, highly toxic.
Chloric Acid
Strong acid, formula HClO3, used in reactions.
Chlorous Acid
Weak acid, formula HClO2, derived from chlorite.
Sulfurous Acid
Weak acid, formula H2SO3, derived from sulfite.
Carbonic Acid
Weak acid, formula H2CO3, formed in carbonated drinks.
Phosphoric Acid
Moderate acid, formula H3PO4, used in food.
Acetic Acid
Weak acid, formula HC2H3O2, found in vinegar.
Ammonia
Bronsted-Lowry base, formula NH3, accepts H+.
Litmus Test
Indicator that turns red in acids, blue in bases.
Acid
Substance donating H+ ions in solution.
Base
Substance accepting H+ ions in solution.
Conjugate Base
Species formed when an acid donates H+.
Conjugate Acid
Species formed when a base accepts H+.
Buffer Solution
Resists pH changes upon acid or base addition.
Acid-Base Pair
Consists of a conjugate acid and base.
Weak Acid
Partially dissociates in solution, maintains pH.
Salt of Conjugate Base
Derived from a weak acid, stabilizes pH.
pH Scale
Measures acidity or basicity of a solution.
Neutral pH
pH value of 7, neither acidic nor basic.
Acidic Solution
pH less than 7, high H+ concentration.
Basic Solution
pH greater than 7, low H+ concentration.
Carbohydrates
Organic compounds composed of C, H, O.
Monosaccharides
Simplest carbohydrates, single sugar units.
Disaccharides
Two monosaccharides linked together.
Polysaccharides
Many monosaccharides linked in chains.
Glycogen
Short-term energy reserve in animals.
Photosynthesis
Process converting CO2 and H2O into glucose.
Hydronium Ion
H3O+, indicates acidity in solutions.
pH Meter
Device measuring the acidity of a solution.
Litmus Paper
Indicator paper changing color with pH.
pH Indicators
Substances changing color at specific pH values.
Cell Membranes
Structures composed of lipids and proteins.
DNA and RNA
Nucleic acids forming genetic material in cells.
Cellular Processes
Biochemical activities maintaining cell function.
Oxygen Uptake
Process affected by blood pH levels.
Blood Glucose Measurement
Tests glucose levels after glucose ingestion.
Carbonyl Group
Functional group with C=O bond.
Hydroxyl Group
Functional group with -OH, alcohol characteristic.
Monosaccharides
Simple sugars ending in -ose, like glucose.
D-Galactose
Aldohexose, C6H12O6, derived from lactose.
Aldohexose
Monosaccharide with aldehyde and six carbons.
D-Fructose
Ketohexose, sweetest sugar, C6H12O6.
Ketoses
Monosaccharides with ketone and hydroxyl groups.
Haworth Structures
Cyclic forms of monosaccharides with 5-6 carbons.
Fischer Projections
2D representation of carbohydrates showing stereochemistry.
Cyclic Hemiacetals
Formed when carbonyl and hydroxyl groups react.
D and L Notations
Designate isomers based on carbonyl position.
Anomer
Isomers formed by ring closure in sugars.
D-Glyceraldehyde
Simplest aldose, important in glycolysis.
Dihydroxyacetone
Simplest ketose, also involved in glycolysis.
α-D-Glucose
Anomer with -OH group down in Haworth.
β-D-Glucose
Anomer with -OH group up in Haworth.
Blood Glucose Level
Normal range is 70-90 mg/dL.
Glucose Tolerance Test
Assesses body's glucose handling capability.
Haworth Structure of Fructose
Cyclic form with -OH on C5 bonding to C2.
Seliwanoff's Test
Identifies ketohexoses by producing cherry red complex.
Bial's Test
Detects pentoses by forming bluish product.
Tollen's Phloroglucinol Test
Oxidation test producing red compound from furfural.
Reducing Sugars
Sugars that can donate electrons in reactions.
Cyclic Structures
Formed when monosaccharides react in solution.
Open Chain Structure
Linear form of monosaccharides before cyclization.
Polymers of Starch
Complex carbohydrates made of glucose units.
Glycogen
Storage form of glucose in animals.
Cellulose
Structural polysaccharide in plant cell walls.
Tauber's Benzidine Test
Detects monosaccharides with carbonyl groups.
Furfural Ring
Reacts with benzidine to produce red compound.
Benedict's Reagent
Copper (II) ions used to test reducing sugars.
Pentoses
More specific monosaccharides detected by Tauber's test.
Detection Limit
Can detect up to 0.01 mg of pentose.
Mucic Acid Test
Identifies presence of galactose via white precipitate.
Mucic Acid
Dicarboxylic acid formed from galactose and nitric acid.
Barfoed's Test
Distinguishes aldoses and ketoses in acidic conditions.
Reducing Sugars
Sugars that can reduce cupric ions.
D-Glucose
A reducing sugar that produces D-glucitol.
D-Glucitol
Also known as D-sorbitol, a sugar alcohol.
Benedict's Test
Reduces copper (II) to copper (I) ions.
Molisch Test
Tests all carbohydrates by hydrolysis to monosaccharides.
Color Change in Molisch Test
Changes from blue to green, orange, or red.
Furfural Production
Pentoses dehydrate to furfural during Molisch test.
Fehling's Test
Uses copper sulfate to test for reducing sugars.
Copper Sulfate
Component of Fehling's solution for reducing sugar tests.
Phenylhydrazine Reaction
Forms ozazones with reducing sugars when heated.
Ozazone Formation
Characteristic crystals formed from reducing sugar reactions.
Sucrose
Table sugar, consists of glucose and fructose.
Glycosidic Bond
Sucrose has an α,β-1,2-glycosidic bond.
Crystalline Shapes
Different sugars form distinct crystal shapes.
Note 
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