AP World Unit 5 -people

Copernicus

astronomer who was the first to formulate a scientifically based heliocentric cosmology that displaced the Earth from the center of the universe; challenged church doctrine and is considered the epiphany that began the scientific revolution

Kepler

astronomer who discovered the laws of planetary motion, proving planets move in elliptical orbits

Galileo

scientist who used telescope to gather evidence for the heliocentric theory; his discoveries led to conflict with the Catholic church and symbolized the struggle between science and religious authority

Decartes

philosopher and mathematician known for his statement of ‘I think therefor I am’ and emphasis on rationalism and deductive reasoning

Newton

invented differential calculus and formulated the theory about the nature of light and three laws of motion

Boyle

known as the father of modern chemistry; creating a law describing the relationship between gas pressure and volume

Locke

advocated for the idea of a social contract in which government powers are derived from the consent from the governed and in which the government and where the government serves the people; people have natural rights to life liberty and property

Hobbes

believed humans are naturally selfish and need a strong central authority; advocated for absolute sovereignty

Montesquieu

proposed the separation of powers into three branches

Rousseau

known for his ideas about the social contract theory and the natural goodness of humanity; emphasized the importance of individual freedom and the collective will of the people

Mary Wollstonecraft

feminist who argued women’s equality with men in her ‘vindication of the rights of women’

Alexander ||

Russian tsar who abolished serfdom; aimed to modernize Russia but left many former serfs with limited land and heavy debts

Voltaire

believed freedom of speech was the best weapon against a bad government; spoke out against the corruption of the French government and the intolerance of the Catholic church

Philosophes

intellectuals of the enlightenment

Ben Franklin

helped spread enlightenment ideas through his writings and scientific experiments; played a major diplomatic role during the American Revolution, securing French support that was crucial to American victory

King Louis XVI

King of France during the early stages of the French revolution; indecisive and unable to manage the financial crisis or political unrest; his attempt to flee France destroyed the publics trust and led to his execution

Jacobins

the most radical and extreme political faction of the French Revolution who led France during the reign of terror

Maximilen Robespierre

leading Jacobin and the principal architect of the reign of terror; believed that virtue and terror were necessary to protect the revolution from internal enemies; his increasing authoritarianism led to his execution, ending the radical phase of the revolution

Napoleon Bonaparte

military general who rose to power after the chaos of the revolution; crowned himself emperor and expanded French territory across Europe through military conquest; his ambitions led to widespread war

Metternich

Austrian foreign minister and a dominant figure at the congress of Vienna; believed in conservatism, monarchy, and suppressing revolutionary movements

Mazzini

founder of the movement ‘Young Italy,’ which believed Italy should be unified as a democratic republic based on the will of the people

Pope Pius IX

head of the Catholic church during the Italian unification movement; initially showed sympathy towards the reform but opposed it when it threatened the papal states, which made him a symbol of conservative opposition to Italian unity

Cavour

prime minister of Piedmont-Sardina and the chief architect of Italian unification; favored a constitutional monarchy rather than a republic; used diplomacy, economic modernization, and strategic alliances (especially with France) to weaken Austrian control

Garibaldi

nationalist military leader who led the ‘red shirts’ in conquering southern Italy; handed his conquests to King Victor Emmanuel ||

Victor Emmanuel ||

king of Piedmont- Sardina and later became the first king of unified Italy

Kaiser Wilhelm |

King of Prussia who later became the first emperor of unified Germany; marked the rise of Germany as a major European power

Otto von Bismark

Prussian chancellor who masterminded German unification through diplomacy, manipulation, and war; believed in Realpolitik, politics based on practical goals rather than ideology

Gens de Couleur

free people of mixed African and European descent in Saint Domingue; owned property and slaves but faced legal discrimination and lacked full political rights; struggle for equality helped spark the early stages of the revolution

Toussaint L’Ouverture

most important ruler of the Haitian revolution; formerly enslaved man who united groups to fight for freedom and autonomy; his leadership defeated French, Spanish, and British forces, laying the foundation for Haitian independence

Maori

indigenous Polynesian people of New Zealand; resisted British colonization in the New Zealand wars

Simon Bolivar

Venezuelan military leader who played a key role in liberating several South American countries from Spanish rule, including Venezuelan, Columbia, Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia; envisioned a united Latin America

Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla

Creole priest who launched Mexico’s independence movement in 1810; rallied Mestizos and Indigenous people but was eventually captured and executed

Jose Maria Morelos

mestizo priest and former student of Miguel Hidalgo Costilla; advocated for social reforms and led forces fighting for Mexican independence until he was captured and executed

Hurbide & Guerrero

conservative creole and liberal Mestizo who united to achieve Mexican independence

King Pedro |

declared Brazil’s independence from Portugal and became its first emperor; helped Brazil avoid violent revolutions

Jose Antonio Paez

became president of Venezuela; broke with Bolivar

Benito Juarez

liberal reformer and indigenous president of Mexico who fought for constitutional government and secular reforms; resisted French intervention and helped modernize Mexico