Conflict over Germany, 1947-49

Yalta Conference: when and who

4–11 February 1945; attended by Roosevelt, Churchill, Stalin to plan the end of WWII and the post‑war order

Key outcomes of Yalta  

Germany divided into four zones; Berlin divided; UN to be ratified; USSR gains territory from Poland; Declaration on Liberated Europe (free elections principle, later disputed)

Conflicting aims at Yalta

Roosevelt/Churchill: collective security, democratic self‑determination, economic reconstruction. Stalin: security via Soviet spheres of influence, weak Germany, territorial/security gains in Eastern Europe

Percentages Agreement

Informal 1944 deal between Churchill and Stalin allocating influence in Eastern Europe by percentages (e.g., Romania 90% USSR; Greece 90% UK); shows realpolitik and sphere bargaining

Potsdam Conference: context and leadership changes

17 July–1 Aug 1945; Roosevelt dead (Truman president); Churchill replaced by Attlee mid‑conference; occurred after US atomic test — changed diplomatic dynamics

Potsdam decisions and limits

Agreed disarmament, demilitarisation, de‑Nazification, decentralisation and reparations arrangements; no long‑term blueprint for Europe; mistrust increased

Core beliefs of Western capitalist democracies

Individual liberty, free‑market economy with minimal state control, political pluralism and free elections; emphasis on opportunity rather than enforced equality

Marxism, Leninism and Stalinism

• Marx: capitalism exploits proletariat

• Lenin: vanguard party, dictatorship of proletariat to implement socialism

• Stalin: cult of personality, centralisation, security first — shaped aggressive Soviet foreign policy

Roosevelt’s post‑war vision

Believed in international institutions (UN) and cooperation to secure peace and democratic outcomes; underestimated Soviet security concerns

Churchill’s perspective

Deep distrust of Stalin; prioritised protecting British interests and imperial influence; favoured close Anglo‑American alliance to counter USSR

Truman’s approach

Less trusting than Roosevelt; moved toward confrontation and containment, willing to use economic and military leverage to limit Soviet expansion

Stalin’s priorities

Security through buffer states, maintain Red Army presence in Eastern Europe, keep Germany weak until it could be secured as pro‑Soviet, prioritise regime survival

Stalin’s initial motive in Eastern Europe

Security and influence (buffer zone) rather than immediate ideological expansion; later consolidated communist regimes for long‑term security

Methods used to establish communist regimes

Coalition tactics with left parties, intimidation, manipulated elections, arrests, purges and show trials; sometimes gradualist rather than outright force

Poland 1945–48: key developments

• Lublin Government used as Soviet instrument

• Provisional Government of National Unity (June 1945) gave façade of pluralism

• Communists merged with socialists (Jan 1947) and purged opponents (e.g., Gomulka) by 1948

Romania, Bulgaria, Hungary routes to control

• Romania: Red Army occupation + popularity of communists

• Bulgaria: rigged elections, removal/execution of opponents

• Hungary: alliances, arrests, rigged elections and purges by 1949

Czechoslovakia 1945–48  

• Strong communist support among workers;

• acceptance of Western aid (1947) alarmed Moscownon‑communist resignations (1948) enabled Gottwald to consolidate power; Beneš resigned

Yugoslavia and Tito

Initially Stalinist but resisted Soviet control; expelled from Cominform (1948) after refusing to be a Soviet puppet; survived with Western aid — example of independent communist path

Cominform and Zhdanov Doctrine

Cominform (Sept 1947) coordinated communist parties under Moscow; Zhdanov Doctrine framed world as two camps (imperialists led by USA vs democrats led by USSR) and justified consolidation

Kennan’s Long Telegram (22 Feb 1946): main message

USSR viewed West as hostile; Soviet policy ideologically driven and expansionist; US should adopt containment, maintain unity among allies and be prepared to threaten force

Kennan’s X article and containment doctrine

Public case for systematic, patient containment of Soviet expansion; influenced Truman administration and US strategy

Churchill’s Iron Curtain speech (6 Mar 1946)

Declared an “iron curtain” across Europe; signalled public recognition of East–West division and increased Soviet alarm

Greek Civil War and US response

Britain withdrew support (Feb 1947); US stepped in — catalyst for Truman Doctrine and shift from British to American leadership in containing communism

Truman Doctrine (12 Mar 1947): purpose  

Public commitment to contain communism by supporting states resisting subversion (initially Greece and Turkey); combined ideological and strategic motives

Marshall Plan (ERP, June 1947): aims and scale

Economic recovery programme to stabilise Europe and reduce appeal of communism; $13.5 billion to 16 countries over five years; required economic cooperation and some US purchases

Political effects of the Marshall Plan

Promoted European economic cooperation (precursor to ECSC/EEC), tied recipients to US economic system, and deepened East–West division as USSR rejected it

Soviet reaction to Marshall Aid  

iewed as economic imperialism; ordered Eastern Bloc states to reject aid; response accelerated consolidation of Soviet control and polarisation of Europe

Four zones and Allied Control Council (ACC)

Germany divided into four occupation zones with military governors; ACC required unanimous decisions — structure allowed each power to act independently and created deadlock

Soviet Zone political engineering (SED)

Soviets forced SPD+KPD merger (Feb 1946) to create SED; introduced land reform, nationalisation and Russian tuition; aimed to make communist dominance nucleus for whole Germany

Bizonia and economic integration

Jan 1947 British and American zones merged economically (Bizonia) to promote recovery; signalled failure of four‑power control and moved West toward a separate state

Currency reform and Berlin Blockade (June 1948–May 1949)  

• Western zones introduced new currency (June 1948)

• Soviets blockaded land/rail access to West Berlin (24 June 1948)

• Allies responded with airlift; blockade lifted May 1949 — containment success

Creation of West and East Germany

West Germany constitution approved early 1949; Konrad Adenauer first leader; Occupation Statute limited sovereignty. East Germany formed Oct 1949 with SED one‑party system — formal division of Germany

OMGUS and Western administration

Office of Military Government, United States (OMGUS) led by General Clay; managed US zones, de‑Nazification surveys and reconstruction; dismantled 1949

British and French positions on Germany

Britain sought a stable West German economy (Ruhr concerns); France initially wanted dismemberment and Ruhr internationalisation but later accepted Western German state under safeguards

Western European Union (WEU)

Regional defence organisation (Britain, France, Benelux) aimed to prevent German resurgence; signalled European states’ desire for collective security and encouraged US involvement

Formation of NATO (4 April 1949): purpose  

Collective defence alliance to reassure Western Europe against Soviet aggression; Article 5 established collective response to attack; initial members included USA, UK, France, Benelux, Italy, Norway, Denmark, Portugal, Iceland, Canada, Luxembourg, Belgium

Soviet response to NATO

Denounced NATO as aggressive and a tool of Western pressure; used NATO’s formation to justify consolidation of Eastern Bloc defences and political unity

How 1945–49 institutionalised division

Yalta/Potsdam disagreements, Soviet consolidation in East, Marshall Plan, Cominform, Bizonia, currency reform, Berlin blockade and NATO created structural, political and military division across Europe

Yalta Conference (when and who) 

4–11 Feb 1945; Roosevelt (USA), Churchill (UK), Stalin (USSR) met to plan the post‑war order: Germany, Eastern Europe, UN and territorial adjustments

Key Yalta agreements 

• Germany divided into four occupation zones

• Berlin divided; UN to be ratified

• USSR to gain territory from Poland

• Declaration on Liberated Europe (free elections principle, later disputed)

Conflicting aims at Yalta

Roosevelt/Churchill: collective security, democratic self‑determination, economic reconstruction. Stalin: Soviet security via spheres of influence, weak Germany, territorial/security gains

The Percentages Agreement (Oct 1944) 

Informal Churchill‑Stalin deal allocating influence in Eastern Europe by percentages (e.g., Romania 90% USSR; Greece 90% UK); example of realpolitik and sphere bargaining

Potsdam Conference (when, context)

17 July–1 Aug 1945; Roosevelt dead (Truman president); Churchill replaced mid‑conference by Attlee; occurred after US atomic test — changed diplomatic dynamics

Potsdam decisions and limits

Agreed disarmament, demilitarisation, de‑Nazification, decentralisation and reparations; no long‑term blueprint for Europe; mistrust increased and atomic diplomacy hardened positions

Why Yalta and Potsdam both mattered for Cold War origins

Showed apparent cooperation but revealed divergent aims (Poland, spheres), leadership changes and the impact of the atomic bomb — all feeding mistrust and rivalry

Core beliefs of Western capitalist democracies

Individual liberty, free‑market economy with minimal state control, political pluralism and free elections; emphasis on opportunity rather than enforced equality

Marxism, Leninism and Stalinism (short)

• Marx: capitalism exploits proletariat

• Lenin: vanguard party, dictatorship of the proletariat

• Stalin: cult of personality, centralisation, security first — influenced Soviet foreign policy

Roosevelt’s post‑war vision

Believed in international institutions (UN) and cooperation to secure peace and democratic outcomes; underestimated Soviet security concerns

Churchill’s perspective

Deep distrust of Stalin; prioritised protecting British interests and imperial influence; favoured close Anglo‑American alliance to counter USSR

Truman’s approach

Less trusting than Roosevelt; moved toward confrontation and containment, willing to use economic and military leverage to limit Soviet expansion

Stalin’s priorities in Europe

Security through buffer states, maintain Red Army presence, keep Germany weak until it could be secured as pro‑Soviet; regime survival over ideological purity

How personalities influenced diplomacy

Leaders’ beliefs and styles (Roosevelt’s idealism, Churchill’s distrust, Truman’s toughness, Stalin’s security obsession) amplified structural disagreements and mistrust

Stalin’s initial motive in Eastern Europe  

Security and influence (buffer zone) rather than immediate ideological expansion; later consolidated communist regimes for long‑term security

Common Soviet methods to secure Eastern Europe

Coalition tactics with left parties, intimidation, manipulated elections, arrests, purges, show trials and use of Red Army presence

Poland: key tactics and outcomes

Lublin Government used as Soviet instrument; Provisional Government of National Unity (June 1945) gave façade of pluralism; communists merged with socialists (Jan 1947) and purged opponents (e.g., Gomulka) by 1948

Romania, Bulgaria, Hungary: routes to control

• Romania: Red Army occupation + communist popularity

• Bulgaria: gradualism, rigged elections, removal/execution of opponents

• Hungary: alliances, arrests, rigged elections and purges by 1949

Czechoslovakia 1945–48

Industrialised with strong communist support; acceptance of Western aid (1947) alarmed Moscow; non‑communist resignations (1948) allowed Gottwald to consolidate power; Beneš resigned

Yugoslavia and Tito’s break with Stalin

Tito resisted Soviet domination; expelled from Cominform (1948) after refusing to be a Soviet puppet; survived with Western aid — example of independent communist path

Cominform and the Zhdanov Doctrine

Cominform (Sept 1947) coordinated communist parties under Moscow; Zhdanov Doctrine framed world as two camps (imperialists led by USA vs democrats led by USSR) and justified consolidation

Why Poland was a flashpoint

Liberated by Red Army; West expected free elections per Yalta; Stalin insisted on friendly government for security — symbolised clash over self‑determination vs security

Kennan’s Long Telegram (22 Feb 1946): main message

USSR viewed West as hostile; Soviet policy ideologically driven and expansionist; US should adopt containment, maintain unity among allies and be prepared to threaten force

Kennan’s X article and containment doctrine

Public case for systematic, patient containment of Soviet expansion; influenced Truman administration and US strategy

Churchill’s “Iron Curtain” speech (6 Mar 1946)

Declared an “iron curtain” across Europe; signalled public recognition of East–West division and increased Soviet alarm

Greek Civil War and its significance

Civil war between monarchists and communists after liberation; Britain withdrew support (Feb 1947) and appealed to USA — catalyst for Truman Doctrine

Truman Doctrine (12 Mar 1947): purpose and motives

Public commitment to contain communism by supporting states resisting subversion (initially Greece and Turkey); combined ideological and strategic motives and marked US global role

Marshall Plan (ERP, June 1947): aims and scale

Economic recovery programme to stabilise Europe and reduce appeal of communism; $13.5bn to 16 countries over five years; required economic cooperation and some US purchases

Political effects of the Marshall Plan

Promoted European economic cooperation (precursor to ECSC/EEC), tied recipients to US economic system, and deepened East–West division as USSR rejected it

Soviet reaction to the Marshall Plan

Saw it as economic imperialism; ordered Eastern Bloc states to reject aid; response accelerated division of Europe and consolidation of Soviet control

How US economic power reshaped foreign policy

Post‑war US dominance enabled use of economic aid and institutions (IMF, World Bank, Marshall Plan) as tools of influence; economic policy central to containment

Four zones and Allied Control Council (ACC)

Germany divided into four occupation zones with military governors; ACC required unanimous decisions — structure allowed each power to act independently and created deadlock

Soviet Zone political engineering (SED)

Soviets forced SPD+KPD merger (Feb 1946) to create SED; introduced land reform, nationalisation and Russian tuition; aimed to make communist dominance nucleus for whole Germany

Bizonia and economic integration

Jan 1947 British and American zones merged economically (Bizonia) to promote recovery; signalled failure of four‑power control and moved West toward a separate state

Currency reform and the Berlin Blockade (June 1948–May 1949)

Western zones introduced new currency (June 1948); Soviets blockaded land/rail access to West Berlin (24 June 1948); Allies responded with airlift; blockade lifted May 1949 — containment success

Creation of West and East Germany

West Germany constitution approved early 1949; Konrad Adenauer first leader; Occupation Statute limited sovereignty. East Germany formed Oct 1949 with SED one‑party system — formal division

OMGUS (Office of Military Government, United States)

US administrative body in Western Germany led by General Clay; managed reconstruction, de‑Nazification surveys and governance; dismantled 1949

British and French positions on Germany

Britain sought stable West German economy (Ruhr concerns); France initially wanted dismemberment and Ruhr internationalisation but later accepted a Western German state under safeguards

Why Germany became the focal point of confrontation

Strategic centrality, economic weight (Ruhr), differing allied aims and the symbolic division of Berlin made Germany the primary arena for East–West rivalry

Western European Union (WEU)

Regional defence organisation (Britain, France, Benelux) aimed to prevent German resurgence; signalled European desire for collective security and encouraged US involvement

Formation of NATO (4 Apr 1949): purpose and articles

Collective defence alliance to reassure Western Europe; Article 5: attack on one considered attack on all; initial members included USA, UK, France, Benelux, Italy, Norway, Denmark, Portugal, Iceland, Canada, Luxembourg, Belgium

Soviet response to NATO

Denounced NATO as aggressive and a tool of Western pressure; used NATO’s formation to justify consolidation of Eastern Bloc defences and political unity

How 1945–49 institutionalised division

Yalta/Potsdam disagreements, Soviet consolidation in East, Marshall Plan, Cominform, Bizonia, currency reform, Berlin blockade and NATO created structural, political and military division across Europe

Evidence for Soviet motives (security vs ideology)  

Red Army occupation, buffer zone strategy, manipulation of elections, Cominform and purges show security and control motives often prioritised over ideological purity

Evidence for US motives (economic and strategic)

Kennan’s containment, Truman Doctrine, Marshall Plan, IMF/World Bank and support for Western Germany show economic security, anti‑communism and desire to protect markets