psych exam 3

Operant conditioning

instrumental conditioning

Law of effect (thorndike)

Tendency of an organism to produce a behavior depends on the effect the behavior has on the environment like the puzzle box

B.F. Skinner

“Radical behaviorism”, behavior is controlled by its consequences

Skinner box

operant chamber

Reinforcement

consequence of behavior that increases the probability that the behavior will occur

Punishment

consequence of behavior that decreases the probability that the behavior will occur

Shaping

reinforcing closer and closer approximations of the desired response

successive approximations

responses that are increasingly similar to the desired response

Positive reinforcement

presentation of a pleasant stimulus after a behavior —> increases probability of behavior

Negative reinforcement

removal of an unpleasant stimulus after a behavior —> increases probability of behavior

Positive punishment

unpleasant stimulus follows behavior —> decreases probability of behavior

Negative punishment

removal of pleasant stimulus after a behavior —> decreases probability of behavior

Generalization

After a behavior is reinforced in one situation, it is performed in a different situation

Discrimination

a behavior that is reinforced in one situation is not performed in a different situation

Extinction

after the reinforced is withdrawn, the behavior decreases

Spontaneous recovery

after extinction, the behavior reappears

Continuous reinforcement

consequences are the same each time the behavior occurs

Intermittent (partial) reinforcement

consequences are given only some of the times the behavior occurs

ratio schedules of reinforcement

reinforcement is given after the behavior is exhibited a certain number of times

interval schedules of reinforcement

reinforcement is given after a certain amount of time

Fixed ratio

reinforcement for a fixed proportion of responses emitted

Variable ratio

reward for some percentage of responses, but unpredictable number of responses required before reinforcement

fixed interval

reinforcement for responses after a fixed amount of time

variable interval

reinforcement for responses after an amount of time that is not constant

extrinsic motivation

pursuit of goal for external rewards

intrinsic motivation

pursuit of activity for its own sake

overjustification effect

too much reward —> undermines intrinsic motivation

observational learning

learning by observing the behavior of others

Modeling

imitating others behavior

Bandura

experiments with bobo doll

Children exposed to either violent tv or nonviolent

violent tv —> much more aggression

Exposure to prosocial needs, observation of others providing help

more likely to help

Memory

information that has been stored and can be retrieved

Info processing model of memory: 3 steps

Encoding, storage, retrieval

Encoding

getting information into memory

Storage

maintaining encoded information over time

retrieval

pulling previously encoded and stored information from memory

Atkinson and Shiffrin’s three stage model of info processing: 3 stages of memory formation:

sensory, short term memory, and long term memory

Sensory memory

system that holds sensory info (visual, auditory) for a very brief time after the stimulus disappears

Iconic memory

visual sensory memory

Sperling

flashed 12 letters for 1/20 sec then signaled to recall the ltters

echoic memory

auditory sensory memory

Short term memory

for info that is available to consciousness for about 20-30 seconds

Capacity of short term memory

7 +- 2 (“magical +7”)

Long term memory

relatively permanent memory, unlimited capacity

Types of long term memory

explicit

semantic, episodic memory

implicit

procedural memory, priming, classically conditioned associations

explicit memory

conscious recollection of material from long term memory (declarative)

semantic memory

memory of general knowledge

episodic memory

memory of personally experienced events

implicit memory

not brought to mind consciously, but expressed in behavior (nondeclarative)

Procedural memory

memory for the performance of skills

priming

prior exposure to a stimulus affects responses to a later stimulus

evidence of memory retention

recall, recognition, relearning

Recall

producing memories using minimal retrieval cues

recognition

knowledge of whether one has previously been exposed to information

relearning

learning occurs more quickly the second time it is learned

Chunking

organizing info into smaller, meaningful pieces to facilitate memory

Mnemonics

strategies and tricks for improving memory, sentences and acronyms

rehearsal

repeating some info

• No rehearsal —> less likely to remember

maintenance rehearsal

role repetition of material

elaborative rehearsal

thinking about the meaning of the info

levels of processing (Craik and Tulving)

info can be processed at different depths, from shallow to deep

level of processing..

affects likelihood of recall

Shallow processing

superficial features, such a physical appearance

Deep processing

meaning

Levels of processing means

elicited encoding depth by asking different types of questions

Encoding specificity

specific cues are encoded with the memory

context dependent memory

environment in which something is learned serves as cue for retrieval

state dependent memory

physical or mental state in which something is learned serves as cue for retrieval

encoding failure

memory fails to form due to lack of attention or processing

storage decay

after memory has been stored, may fade

ebbinghaus’s forgetting curse

after forming a memory, majority of forgetting occur

retrieval failure

stored memories cannot be accessed, tip of tongue

Anterograde amnesia

memory loss for information encountered after head injury

Retrograde amnesia

memory loss for information form before head injury

Application: eyewitness memory, memory reconsolidation and reconstruction; loftus

how fast were the cars going when they hit each other? What shape was the red car?

heuristics

simple rules for making complex decisions/judgments

representativeness heuristic

tendency to see someone or something as belonging to a particular group or category by evaluating how similar this person or thing is to a typical person or thing in that category

base rate fallacy

using the representativeness heuristic means ignoring base rates

base rates

frequency with given events or cases occur in the population

availability heuristic

strategy for making judgments based on how easily specific kinds of information can be brought to mind

simulatioon heuristic (counterfactual thinking)

imagining alternative version of actual events shapes emotional response

Outcomes of bilingualism

greater cognitive flexibility, protection against cognitive decline, higher academic achievement in upper grades, better executive control, additional area of brain activation

perseverance effect (belief perseverance)

beliefs tend to persist in the face of disconfirming information

confirmation bias

tendency to search for and use information that is consistent with our existing beliefs

If information that is inconsistent with our beliefs

we question the validity of the information

brain plasticity —>

brain very vulnerable

Enriched experiences —>

spur brain development

healthy and stimulating environment —>

increases IQ

romanian orphanges

little contact or stimulation (cognitive impairment)

stereotype threat

threats felt when stereotype is salient to targets of negative stereotypes (steele and aronson)

awareness of the stereotype and fear of confirming stereotype

impair target’s ability to behave in counter-stereotypic way

How can stereotype threat be counteracted

education about stereotype threat, role models, self affirmation, growth mindset

fixed mindset

performance is assumed to reflect ability that is unchangeable

growth mindset

performance is assumed to reflect effort is modifiable

motivation

factors that direct and energize behavior

hierarchy of needs

list of ascending needs from basic to more complex

self actualization

need to find self fulfillment and realize one’s potential

What is emotion

bodily arousal and conscious experience

James Lange theory of emotion

we experience physiological arousal or behavior in response to stimuli, due to this response or behavior we experience emotion

so

physiological arousal or behavior —> emotion