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Ecosystem
A biological community of interacting organisms and their physical environment.
Biotic vs. Abiotic
Biotic = living components (plants, animals); Abiotic = non-living (temperature, pH).
Trophic Levels
Levels of a food chain (producers → primary consumers → secondary…).
Net Primary Productivity (NPP)
Energy captured by producers minus energy lost via respiration.
Nitrogen Cycle
Steps: Fixation → Nitrification → Assimilation → Ammonification → Denitrification.
Species Richness vs. Evenness
Richness = number of species; Evenness = distribution.
Ecosystem Services
Types: Provisioning, Regulating, Cultural, Supporting.
Island Biogeography Theory
Biodiversity depends on island size and distance from mainland.
Natural Disruptions
Events like wildfires, floods, hurricanes affecting ecosystems.
Carrying Capacity (K)
Maximum population size an environment can sustain.
R-Selected vs. K-Selected Species
R-Selected: Many offspring, little care; K-Selected: Few offspring, high parental care.
Survivorship Curves
Type I: High survival until old age; Type II: Constant death rate; Type III: High early mortality.
Total Fertility Rate (TFR)
Average # of children a woman will have.
Plate Tectonics
Types: Divergent, Convergent, Transform boundaries.
Soil Horizons (O, A, B, C, R)
O = Organic layer, A = Topsoil, B = Subsoil.
Watershed
Area of land where water drains into a common waterway.
El Niño
Weak trade winds, warmer Pacific waters, disrupted weather.
Tragedy of the Commons
Individuals overuse shared resources.
Clearcutting
Erosion, loss of biodiversity, increased CO₂.
Green Revolution
Increase in agricultural yield through chemicals and GMOs.
CAFOs vs. Free-range Grazing
CAFOs: Efficient but polluting; Free-range: Better for environment, more space.
Irrigation Types
Most efficient: Drip irrigation; Least efficient: Flood irrigation.
Nonrenewable vs. Renewable Energy
Nonrenewable: Coal, oil, natural gas; Renewable: Solar, wind, hydro, geothermal, biomass.
Energy Return on Investment (EROI)
Ratio of energy output to energy input.
Coal Power Plant
Burn coal → heat water → steam spins turbine → generates electricity.
Passive vs. Active Solar
Passive: Uses building design; Active: Uses solar panels and pumps.
Primary vs. Secondary Pollutants
Primary: Emitted directly (CO, SO₂); Secondary: Form in atmosphere (O₃, smog).
Photochemical Smog
Formation: VOCs + NOx + sunlight = Ozone.
Thermal Inversion
Warm air traps pollutants near surface.
Acid Rain
Cause: SO₂ + NOx → sulfuric/nitric acid in rain.
Eutrophication
Nutrient runoff → algal blooms → oxygen depletion.
Dead Zones
Example: Gulf of Mexico; Cause: Excess nutrients and eutrophication.
Bioaccumulation vs. Biomagnification
Bioaccumulation: Toxin in one organism; Biomagnification: Toxin increases up food chain.
Solid Waste Types
MSW: Municipal solid waste (trash); Hazardous waste: Toxic, corrosive, flammable.
Greenhouse Effect
GHGs trap infrared heat in atmosphere.
Global Warming Potential (GWP)
CO₂ = 1; Methane = 25x; N₂O = 300x.
Ocean Acidification
Cause: CO₂ + H₂O = Carbonic acid.
Endangered Species Act
Purpose: Protect species from extinction.
CITES Treaty
Goal: Prevent illegal wildlife trade.
10% Rule
Only about 10% of energy is passed from one trophic level to the next.
Chemosynthesis
Process by which organisms produce energy using chemicals (not sunlight).
Gross Primary Productivity (GPP)
Total amount of solar energy captured by producers.
Hydrologic Cycle
Processes: Evaporation → Condensation → Precipitation → Infiltration/Runoff.
Phosphorus Cycle
Does NOT involve atmosphere.
Carbon Sink
Stores carbon for long periods.
Genetic Diversity
Increases a population’s chance of survival under environmental stress.
Ecological Tolerance
Range of abiotic conditions an organism can handle.
Indicator Species
Sensitive to environmental change.
Keystone Species
Has a disproportionately large effect on its ecosystem.
Specialist vs. Generalist Species
Specialist: Narrow niche; Generalist: Broad niche.
Ecological Succession (Primary vs. Secondary)
Primary: No soil; Secondary: Soil remains.
Rule of 70
Formula for doubling time: 70 ÷ growth rate (%).
Age Structure Diagrams
Broad base = rapid growth, narrow base = declining population.
Population Momentum
Continued population growth despite falling fertility rates.
Density-Dependent vs. Independent Factors
Dependent: Competition, disease; Independent: Natural disasters.
Demographic Transition Model
Stages: Pre-industrial → Transitional → Industrial → Post-industrial.
Soil Texture Triangle
Determines soil type based on % of sand, silt, clay.
Earth's Atmospheric Layers
From bottom: Troposphere → Stratosphere → Mesosphere → Thermosphere.
Coriolis Effect
Deflects moving air/water due to Earth’s rotation.
Hadley Cell
Global circulation pattern from equator to 30° latitude.
Insolation
Incoming solar radiation.
Urban Sprawl
Expansion of urban areas into natural land.
Integrated Pest Management (IPM)
Combines biological, chemical, and physical pest control methods.
Slash-and-Burn Agriculture
Destroys forest for temporary farming.
Aquaculture
Farming of aquatic organisms.
Drip Irrigation
Delivers water directly to roots.
Overburden
Top layers removed in mining.
Peat
Precursor to coal; partially decayed organic matter.
Hydraulic Fracturing (Fracking)
Extracts natural gas by fracturing rock layers.
Cogeneration
Uses waste heat from electricity generation.
Wind Energy
Clean, renewable; best in open, windy areas.
Geothermal Energy
Uses Earth’s internal heat.
Passive Solar Design
Design homes to absorb and store solar heat.
Particulate Matter (PM2.5, PM10)
Tiny particles harmful when inhaled.
Lead (Pb)
Toxic metal once common in gasoline and paint.
Noise Pollution
Disrupts animal communication and stresses humans.
Vapor Recovery Nozzles
Capture gasoline vapors at fuel pumps.
Scrubbers and Electrostatic Precipitators
Scrubbers remove SO₂; ESPs remove particulates from emissions.
Thermal Pollution
Warmer water lowers oxygen levels.
Cultural Eutrophication
Human-caused nutrient input into water bodies.
Septic Systems
Rural wastewater treatment.
LD₅₀ (Lethal Dose 50%)
Dose that kills 50% of test organisms.
POPs (Persistent Organic Pollutants)
Long-lasting, toxic chemicals.
Clean Water Act
Regulates pollutant discharges into U.S. waters.
Climate vs. Weather
Climate = long-term average; Weather = short-term conditions.
Melting Permafrost
Releases methane, a powerful greenhouse gas.
Invasive Species
Non-native species that outcompete natives.
Coral Bleaching
Caused by warm water, pollution.
Carbon Footprint
Total greenhouse gas emissions caused by an individual.
Montreal Protocol
International treaty banning ozone-depleting substances like CFCs.