Exam 3 Psych 250

5 developmental tasks of adolescence

1. accept fully grown body and changes in puberty

2. acquire adult ways of thinking

3. develop more mature ways of relating to peers of both sexes

4. consolidate an identity

5. attain greater independence from family

puberty definition

the set of biological processes that change the immature child into a sexually mature person

physical changes of puberty (general nature) - 4 things

• definition of puberty

• not a single event → a gradual process

• timing

  • girls → 10-15

  • boys → 11.5-17

  • occuring earlier now

• growth patterns

  • youth progress through life events at different rates, all generally following the same sequence

  • characterized by uneven growth (asynchrony)

two types of physical change

overall body growth, sexual maturation

overall body growth change (contains: growth spurt, muscle-fat ratio, timing, others)

• controlled by increase in growth hormone

• first outward sign of puberty: growth spurt (large increase in size, strength, weight - 50-75 pounds)

  • girls start earlier, often around age 10 - lasts about 2.5 years, gain 8-10 in

  • boys start later, around age 12.5 - grow for longer, gain 12-13 in

• reverse of cephalocaudal trend

• increase in appetite

• increase in size + activity of oil-producing glands

• see changes in muscle-fat ratio

  • girls add more fat than. boys

  • boys gain more strength in muscle than girls

Sexual maturation primary sexual characteristics

involve reproductive organs directly

sexual maturation secondary sexual characteristics

external physical changes that distinguish males and females in appearance + signal sexual maturity (breasts, facial hair, etc)

general changes of sexual maturation

• increase in levels of androgens and estrogens for girls and boys, but levels are sex-specific

• boys get more androgens like testosterone - muscle growth, gains in body size, sex characteristics

• girls get more estrogens - cause breasts and uterus to mature, fat to accumulate, regulate menstrual cycle

• menarche (1st period) - occurs late in sequence, typically around 12.5

factors affecting timing of puberty

timing influenced by genes and environment

• 2/3 of variation in age and puberty is genetic

• see roles of genes in twin studies (identical = low time difference in puberty)

multiple aspects of environment affect pubertal timing

• nutrition, weight, dieting, exercise (girls need to reach certain weight)

• psychosocial aspects contribute

  • links between early puberty and environmental stress (in a stressful home environment, it is adaptive to mature early, reproduce early)

psychological response to pubertal timing

• psychosocial effects vary by sex

• early: boys tend to fare better

  • athleticism, closer to cultural ideal

• late: girls tend to fare better

  • further from thin ideal, vulnerable to sexual harassment

why is body image a strong predictor of self-esteem?

• amazing amount of growth

• adolescents are now aware of changing body

• adolescents as marginal group (between cultures); within group conformity is important

• mass media contribute by presenting one dimensional images of attractiveness

  • girls: curvy, thin, sexy, attractive face

  • boys: lean, muscular, attractive face

Eating disorders

Girls = increased risk (like anorexia)

boys body image

primary concern = height, muscle, physical strength, risk for steroid abuse (ex: boys talking about body image video)

research example of body image factors

• multiple factors lead teens to internalize these narrow cultural ideals

• Jones et al (2004) tested 4 factors among 780 7th-10th graders

• findings: peer conversation mattered the most (all factors contributed)

  • BMI

  • Appearance magazine exposure

  • conversation with friends

  • peer appearance criticism

general advances in logical thinking (begin formal operational)

• emerges from 11-15

• can now deal with abstract and hypothetical

• thinking is more enlightened, imaginative, idealistic, and rational

• reason like a scientist

• research has shown that growth of formal reasoning abilities is slower and less complete than Piaget thought

three advances in adolescent thinking

1. thinking about possibilities - propositional thought

2. thinking through hypotheses - hypothetical deductive reasoning

3. thinking about abstract concepts

adolescent propositional thought

• able to evaluate logic of propositions without referring to real world circumstances

• can handle the abstract and hypothetical

• allows adolescents to fantasize and speculate on a grander scale

• able to consider range of alternatives in problem solving

adolescent hypothetical and deductive reasoning

• able to formulate, test, and evaluate hypotheses in an orderly fashion

• example - what makes a pendulum swing faster

• young children - random, adolescents do it more systematically

• teens might see weight, string length, and force

role of brain development (adolescent thinking)

• improvements in rational thinking fostered by extensive maturation of prefrontal cortex

  • areas for planning, thinking ahead, and weighing risks/rewards

  • includes synaptic pruning, myelination, increased connections to other parts of brain

• but adolescents still don’t fully resemble adults in decision-making

• see risk-taking and “what were they thinking moments”

  • decision making in the real world is the product of both logical reasoning and psychosocial factors (impulse control, handling peer pressure) - these two components mature at different rates

what does psychosocial immaturity stem from? (+push back from researchers)

• gap in maturation of brain networks

• socioemotional networks develop early - highlight emotion, rewards, sensation-seeking, positive interactions

• cognitive control systems develop later and more gradually - responsible for:

  • impulse control

  • emotional regulation

  • delay of gratification

  • resistance to peer influence

• push back: too much focus on negative stereotypes?

  • not all risk-taking is negative

  • cannot succeed with developmental tasks if you take no risks

side effects of new teen thinking abilities

1. see an intense preoccupation with the self + with presenting self in best light

2. two distortions in the relation between self and others

   1. heightened self-consciousness - imaginary audience (belief that one’s behavior is the subject of constant public attention)

   2. specialness - personal fable (belief that one’s thoughts, feelings, and experiences are totally unique

3. sensitivity to hypocrisy - often leads to argumentativeness

4. difficulty with everyday decision-making

what is the major task of adolescence

identity formation

identity definition

well-organized conception of the self - values, beliefs, goals you are solidly committed to (integrating previously unconsolidated components)

why identity issues are so important now (when you become a teen)

• physical change makes you ask who you are becoming

• more responsibility = more cognitive capacity

• may question previous assumptions

erikson’s notions about the process and its psychosocial conflicts (2)

• identity crisis = temporary period of confusion and distress while experimenting with alternatives (today seen as more “exploration)

• identity role confusion = failure to consolidate, lack of adult path

nature of identity process

gradual over time, not simple/straightforward (exploration/questions)

complexity of identity (5)

1. multiple domains of exploration (not all equally developed) (erikson: religion, politics, career, sexuality)

2. multiple influences: peers, parents, school activities

3. identities are hierarchical - some more important than others

4. identities are intersectional - overlap in meaningful ways → unique, interested identity

5. identity is contextual - different environments highlight specific identities

ethnic identity definition

enduring, basic aspect of self that includes a sense of membership in an ethnic group, and attitudes/feelings related to that membership (consciously confronted in adolescence)

challenges of ethnic identity

• discrimination against your group - less positive

• negotiating/confronting stereotypes from mainstream culture

• confront conflicting values between ethnic and mainstream culture

strengths of ethnic identity - research

stronger ethnic identity =

• higher self esteem

• satisfying family interactions

• better academic outcomes and school performance

• less affected by discrimination

• greater levels of daily happiness and lower anxiety

stages of identity formation (Marola) (4 + other)

identity achievement

identity moratorium

identity foreclosure

identity diffusion

other issues and characteristics

identity achievement

completed struggle; explored; committed to self-chosen values and goals

identity moratorium

holding pattern; delay; still exploring; haven’t made commitments

identity foreclosure

pursuing goals chosen by others - commitment without exploration (usually parents/teachers)

identity diffusion

not committed to particular values, not actively exploring - lack direction

other issues/characteristics (identity formation)

not static - continues to change around, including in college

moral development: kohlberg - premise

• focused on reasoning and explanation

• based on interviews with 10-16 year old boys

kohlberg’s 3 broad levels of moral reasoning

1. preconventional

2. conventional

3. postconventional

kohlberg - preconventional

morality is externally controlled + self-centered (focus on fear of punishment)

kohlberg - conventional

moral reasoning guided by laws and social norms

kohlberg - postconventional

morality guided by universal ethical principles

criticisms of kohlberg’s approach

1. wide variability in moral reasoning based on situation

   1. not as neat stepwise

2. age biases

   1. are dilemmas too mature? - more kid-friendly examples tend to yield higher levels of morality

3. gender bias

   1. found women at lower level, gillian suggests questions were from individual justice - less reflection of relationships/concern for others

   2. female morality is embedded in human relationships: ethics of care

   3. today, no gender bias has been found

individuation definition

becoming an individual separate emotionally from one’s parents (room as sanctuary, don’t want parents around)

changing parent-child dynamics (task #5)

increase in parent-child conflict

• most frequent in early adolescence, most intense in mid adolescence

• tends to be about self-discipline and self-control: repeated, petty arguments about cleanliness/leisure time/chores/personal choices

• represents teens desire for independence

domains of conflict in early adolescence (Alison and Schultz)

• 357 youth (11-14)

• asked whether each of 40 issues (13 categories) had been discussed with parents in the last month

  • care of room, household chores most common

parent-teen conflict: larger context

• continual turmoil is rare, general context of family harmony

• most teens admire and love their parents, rely for advice, embrace parents’ values and feel loved by them

• 20% say top concern is not enough time

• quality of parent-child relationship is consistent predictor of teen mental health

• disagreement lessens in late adolescence

Research - Xia, Coffey, and Fosco

• how do daily feelings of feeling loved by parents affect teens?

• 150 adols + parent

• daily surveys + 1 year follow up

• 0-10, how much did you feel loved by your caregiver today?

• 2 measures of flourishing (optimistic about future, personality, friendships)

• results

  • higher levels of feeling love predicted higher flourishing 1 year later

  • greater instability predicted less positive relations and low environmental mastery

depression in adolescence

• most common psychological problem in adols: 15-20% have major depressive episode

• pervasive sadness, low self-esteem, boredom, inability to experience pleasure

• increased sharply in 12-16 year olds in industrialized nations

  • 2x as common in girls than boys

    • biological/hormonal (not just this)

    • coping strategies (women ruminate)

    • gender roles emphasizing passivity and dependence (lack of voice)

    • negative body image

• caused by biology and environmental concepts

age of dating

start at 13-14 (girls), 14-15 (boys)

early dating

often starts in groups

• early dating is based on superficial intimacy rather than genuine closeness

sexual initiation start

during ages 15-19, majority become sexually active (boys before girls)

concerns about risks and consequences of early dating/sex

• inconsistent use of protection and contraception

• adolescents have highest STI rate of all age groups (1 in 5 sexually active teens contracts one each year)

• 625,000 teen pregnancies in 2015

gender differences in early dating + sex experience - male sexual scripts

• expected to be interested in sex

• expected to take initiative

• expected to focus on women’s appearance

• avoid commitment and emotional attachment

gender differences in early dating + sex experience - female sexual scripts

• expected to be less interested in sex, more in love/relationships

• be sexually passive (boys make move)

• use bodies/looks to attract ment

• set sexual limits

• little emphasis on own desire, goal is to be desirable

how do gender scripts affect early sexual experiences

• boys first sexual experience = scoring

• girls first often tied to feelings of love and intimacy

• example: Grease, Summer Nights

• scripts can be very constraining

sexual socialization definition

what and how we learn about sexuality and sexual relationships

sexual socialization as a multidimensional process

• learning involves many issues

• input comes in different forms

• input received across the lifespan

• information comes from several sources

sexual socialization - most important sources

• parents seen as initial sexuality educators

• peers, school, media often cited as most important

• source of information varies by topic

nature of parental communication about sexuality

• american parents typically give minimal direct, verbal information

• focus of communication often on biology, physical development, sexual safety

• minimal discussion of sexual pleasure, sexual feelings

• 2/3 of young people have talked to parents about sexuality

• mothers tend to talk more than fathers

• parents tend to believe they were more communicative than children perceive

Miller/Kotchick et al (parental communication about sexuality)

• surveyed 907 Latino/Black teens 14-16 and at least 1 parent regarding extent of communication on 10 sex topics

• high percent of each topic for mother report vs what the teen reported discussing with mother

• low percent for dad discussing

impact of parental communication on early sexual behavior (includes Widman et al)

• expectation that parental input will be beneficial

• reality = mixed results in the field

• some studies find that parent/child communication is associated with a delay of sexual intercourse and safer sex practice

• handful of reports report opposite association, others report no association

• Widman et al meta analysis - examined 52 studies, 71 effect sizes

  • impact of communication on safer-sex behavior - average r = 10, but not significant for boys, or from dads

• one reason behind mixed results - research has viewed parental communication too simplistically

  • focus on amount over content

  • don’t consider gender scripts

comparison of sexual communication across sources - lessons learned (summary)

• parents and peers differ in nature of sexual themes and messages conveyed

  • parents = relational, abstinence

  • peers = sex-positive, gendered, relational

• different messages have different contributions to sexual health and risk behavior

  • most beneficial = parental relational and parental sex-positive discourses

  • most troubling = parental abstinence, peer-gendered discourses

Ward - exam sexual content on TV (study - method, findings, top 3 themes)

Method

• focused on verbal messages about sexuality

• analyzed 3 episodes of each of the 12 most popular programs among children and adolescents

• dialogue coded using list of 17 themes about sexuality common in our culture

• focused on interactions (verbal + content)

Findings

• overall, 29% of interactions contained messages about sexuality

Three top themes

• dating is a game/competition (12%)

• women are valued for appearance (12%)

• men are supposed to want sex (10%)

findings from Ward lab research testing impact of media sexual content on viewers (summary)

• both correlational and experimental data indicate that media use does play a role in shaping students’ attitudes about sexual relationships.

• related to:

  • holding stereotypical notions about female and male sexual roles

  • more traditional gender role attitudes

  • a stronger acceptance of recreational attitudes about sex (game-playing, objectification of women)

• both exposure levels and viewer involvement (viewing to learn, identification, perceived realism) are important mechanisms

  • young men = higher number of sexual partners

  • boys = diminished well being

  • young women = diminished sexual agency

Trend 1: Increase in Depressive Symptoms (Keyes et al)

• data from monitoring the Future project → conducts yearly cross-sectional surveys of youth in 8th, 10th, and 12th graders

• current sample → 512, 283 teens 13-18

• 4 items measured depressive symptoms

• symptoms of depression increased; largest increase seen among girls since 2012

Trend 2: Increase in emergency room visits for suicide related factors (burnstein et al)

• examined database of US emergency department visits from 2007→ 2015 → incidents among children below 18 with chief complaint or discharge or suicide attempt or suicide ideation

• over 9 years, 59,971 ED visits for children (1613 for SA/SI visit)

• mean age = 13

• no overall change in number of total ED visits over time

• ED visits for SA/SI doubled among youth

Twenge - increase in depressive symptoms, suicide related outcomes, and suicide rates among US Adols after 2010 and links to increase new media screen time

• AIM: investigate if prevalence of depressive symptoms and suicidal ideations have been increased among youth and examined possible cause in trends by looking at leisure time use

• D1: M+F (depressive symptoms) - national sample of 8,10, 12 graders

• D2: YRBSS (suicide-related outcomes) - sample of 9-12 graders

• IV: “How often (1-5) do you visit social networking websites”

• found increased screen time increase depressive symptoms and suicide related outcomes

Findings = mental health trends

• 33% more adols have high levels of depression

• trends driven by girls → 58% more girls sound high in depressive symptoms

• 12% more adols reported at least 1 suicide-related outcome

• depression rates quite similar across race and SES

Findings = activity correlates of mental health

• more time with electronics = increased likelihood of depression symptoms

• time spent on non-screen activities = decreased likelihood of depression symptoms

• correlations persisted with demo controls - stronger for girls than boys

• 4 suicide related outcomes correlated with electronic use

• depressive symptoms not related to economic outcomes

Questions (mental health and media research)

• why social media (why is it unique)?

• do feature of adols make them vulnerable to social media?

• are associations with mental health real/strong/consistent?

• what additional factors to consider to understand connections"?

percents of social media use in US youths

• 81% use it

• 70% use multiple times a day

• 38% use multiple times per hour

• 16% use it constantly

more recent data - percents of social media use

(Pew)

• 97% of teens use internet daily

• 46% are online constantly

• Psych 250 results - Insta/Tiktok have the most frequent use

Transformation framework (7 aspects)

recognize social media as unique-interpersonal context that fundamentally transforms adolescent peer relationships (how distinct is it from face to face)?

• asynchronisity → time lapse between aspects of conversation

• permanence → extent to which content/messages remain accessible

• publicness → accessibility of information by large audiences

• availability → ease with which content can be accessed/shared, regardless of physical location

• cue absence → degree to which physical conversation cues (vocal tone, facial expression) are absent

• quantfiability → availability of countable social metrics

• visualness → emphasis on photographs, images, video sharing

Face to face communication is not mediated communication

adolescents are characterized by

• heightened neurobiological behavioral sensitivity to peer influence and feedback

• prioritization of social connection and peer acceptance

  • peer networks are central for working through developmental tasks of adol

  • increased focus on peer status and approval; high levels of social comparison

• a peak in sensation - novelty - and reward-seeking behavior

• spike in appearance concerns

Social media as intersection (social world, social stimulation, rewards)

• provides near constant opportunity for interaction

• may activate the biological systems behind adols’ heightened sensitivity to social feedback and rewards

• can facilitate pivotal developmental processes such as identity and peer exploration - allow adols to experiment

Findings not as strong as assumed (time on SM vs Adol MH)

• associations are mixed between positive, negative, and null

• when present, effect sizes are often very small

• majority draw on cross-sectional, correlational data - cannot find cause and effect

• many rely on screen time as index of SM use

Evidence from early meta-analyses (screen time, MH)

• McRae et al → 11 papers; youth 5-18; links between SM usage and depressive symp.

• Luic et al → 12 studies; youth 11-18; links between SM usage and depressive symp.

• Keles et al → 13 papers; youth 13-18; links between SM usage and depression/anxiety/distress

Factors to consider (SM and MH) (4)

• digital media use if many things and can have many impacts; consider nuances

• individual differences → media affects some people some of the time; consider that youth may be more vulnerable or resilient

• bidirectional and reciprocal associations - incorporate research methods that help determine cause and effect; including longitudinal work and experiments

• impact may depend on how SM are used; could yield both negative and positive outcomes

3 factors to consider for SM and MH (includes Teague et al, Davis/Goldfield)

1. effects are stronger when you look outside of hours of use

2. longitudinal data - Teague et al - meta-analysis of 153 longitudinal studies (youth 2-19)

3. experimental evidence (Davis/Goldfield)

   1. AIM = to test whether reducing SM on smartphones to 1 hr/day for 3 weeks reduces depression, anxiety, FOMO in youth reporting emotional distress

   2. Participants were 17-25 in Canada with distress symptoms

   3. all reported on MH and SM use everyday for a week (103 normal use; 117 were assigned the treatment)

   4. Studied = depressive symptoms, anxiety, FOMO, sleep time

   5. Results

      1. intervention had decreased dep. symp. (not control)

      2. both decreased in anxiety, but intervention more

      3. both decreased in FOMO, but intervention more

      4. intervention increased in sleep, control decreased

      5. gender didn’t modify effects

Early adulthood: time of peak physical functioning and health (general characteristics of early adulthood)

• prime of life concerning physiological development

• physical strength generally increases during 20s, peaks around 30, then decreases

• athletic skills peak between 20 and 30

• all body systems function at optimum level (overall healthy state)

• death from disease is rare

• body has reached full form (in 20s see: growth in muscle, increase in fat, increase in weight

biological aging definition

genetically influenced declines in functioning of organs and systems that are universal among humans

general nature of biological aging

• process of decline = asynchronous

• large differences in individuals in rate and course of aging

• due to many factors

  • genetics

  • lifestyle

  • living environment

  • historical period

causes of biological aging

sum of many causes; cannot over-simplify it to body-wear

gradual changes in functioning of internal body systems

• decrease in heart and lung functioning (especially when exercising)

• gradual muscle loss and change in motor performance

• reproductive capacity declines, especially 35+

• takes longer to adapt/recover from physical stress

changes in physical appearance (aging)

• gradual loss of collagen - thinner, less flexible, wrinkles, sagging

• other parts of the body wrinkle and sag

• gray hair begins to emerge around 30 - lower number of pigment producing cells

smoking + consequences

• smoking = single most important preventable cause of death

• harms nearly every organ in the body

• related to about 480,000 deaths per year

• around 90% of smokers start before 21

• quitting at any point can have enormous heath benefits

binge drinking definition

men = 5 or more drinks in 2 hour period, women = 4 or more drinks in 2 hour period

prevalence of binge drinking

• 17,500 surveyed = 44% reported to be binge drinkers

• National survey on drug use and health

  • 26.9% of adults = binge in the last month

  • 37.9% of college students = binge in the last month

consequences of binge drinking

• frequent binge drinking is an important health-compromising behavior

patterns in binge drinking (Schulenberg included)

• do patterns persist or is it a life stage issue?

• Schulenberg

  • followed 6,852 youths 18-24

  • sample mean = once or twice for all time periods

  • identified 6 patterns of binge drinking

    • mean = consistent

    • increase → 9.8%

    • decrease → 11.7%

    • rare → 16%

    • fling → 9.6%

    • chronic → 6.8%

    • never → 35.6%

• what distinguished chronic from decreased?

  • decreased were more likely to have future plans

  • expressed more dissatisfaction with their present life

  • expressed lower desire to drink to get drunk

nature of adult thought - riegel and perry

Riegel

• dialectical operations

• accept contradiction and integrate differing viewpoints into a larger conceptual understanding (understand pros and cons)

Perry

• epistemic cognition

• younger → knowledge as discrete, separate units (dualistic thinking - good/bad, right/wrong)

• older → knowledge embedded in framework (relativistic thinking - few absolute truths)

gisella labouvie-vief (pragmatic thought)

• employing only traditional models may be maladaptive

• subjective feelings and personal experience must be integrated with objective, analytical thought

summary of central characteristics of postformal thought (3 things)

• relativism = awareness of multiple truths

• contradiction = basic aspect of reality

• synthesis = synthesizing contradictory thoughts, emotions, and experiences into a larger framework

changes in cognition that result from the college experience

• improves verbal and quantitative skills and knowledge of specific subject areas

• improves oral and written communication skills

• improves various aspects of problem-solving

  • applying reason and evidence

  • identify strengths and weaknesses

  • aware of multiple perspectives and truths (relativism)

• see revisions in attitudes/values

• foster concern with individual rights and human welfare

• develop greater self-understanding, enhanced self-esteem, and a firmer sense of identity

• prepares students to be lifelong learners

Erikson - psychosocial conflict of intimacy vs isolation

• intimacy involves a mutually satisfying, close relationship with another

• must balance needs for independence and intimacy

  • without independence, define self only in terms of a partner - sacrifice self-respect and initiative

  • without intimacy - face isolation, loneliness, and self-absorption

• positive resolution = intimacy - able to commit to a love relationship and sacrifice + compromise

• negative resolution = isolation - involves inability or failure to achieve mutuality

overview of Levinson’s Season’s of life theory (term: life structure)

• based on in-depth interviews of White and Black men, 35-45

• also reviewed biographies of famous men

• wrote Seasons of a Man’s Life

• using interviews of women, 35-45, he wrote Seasons of a Woman’s Life

• central concept is the life structure = underlying pattern or design of a person’s life at a given time - consists of relationships with significant others

• sees development as sequence of stable and transitional phases

  • stable = pursue goals, at ease with self

  • transitional = question one’s life and explore new possibilities

Sequence for early adulthood (Levinson theory)

• 17-22 = transition to adulthood → task is to become psychologically independent from parents

• 22-28 = stable phase → become autonomous, establish self in adult world, work on developing intimacy

• 28-33 = Age 30 transition → reevaluate life structure

• 33-40 = stable phase - “settling down”

  • career consolidation is major goal

  • sex differences

  • men = settling down

  • women = see some continued instability

two organizing factors (Levinson’s theory)

Dream

• image of the self in the adult world that guides decision making

• inspire a person in present endeavors

• gender differences: men-career, women-family+career

• refine and update dreams throughout adulthood

Mentor

• mentor facilitates realization of the dream

• provides transition from parent-child relationship to the world of adult peers

criticisms of Levinson’s theory (4)

• relevance of patterns to today’s youth - cohort effects?

• few non-college educated and low-income men and women in the samples

• possible inaccurate memories of early stages - retrospective

• rigidity of stages

Transition definition

changes in which we restructure our lives or reorder our goals in response to changing experiences