Fundamentals of Psychology 10008 Revision 2- 112Q

SCIENTIFIC METHOD

1. Generate hypothesis
2. Design Study
3. Conduct study and gather datta
4. analyse data
5. interpret results
6. publish

RESEARCH METHODS

Types of measures

Qualitative
Quantitative
Self-Report
Physiological Measures
Observational
Archival

Qualitative Data

Data gathered through words, detailed information that is more difficult to analyze, Many variables

Quantitative Data

data gathered though numbers, lengths and amountts

easy to analyse but does not capture real life experiences and emotions of the individuals

Self-Report

individuals provide own information
can be both qualitative and quantitative

PRO: simple to administer and minimal resources (cost effective)

CONS: wording can influence responses, rely on memory/introspection which is not always reliable
Social desirability and dishonesty

Physiological Measures

Gathering data physiologically through for example GSR, FMRI, PPG (Penile Plethysmograph)

PRO: does not rely on insight (quantitative) no social desirability bias

CONS: Accuracy of inferences? - we make inferences about the meaning of human reactions and bodily function

Observational

Directly observing topic of interest

Overt Observation: people are aware they are being watched
Covert: undercover

PRO: can do in natural setting (no manufactured settings does not rely on introspection

Cons: Social Desirability, subject to a degree of inference and researcher bias

Archival Data

data both qualitative and quantitative that has been collected and archived

Pro: no new data collection, access to large dattabases

CON: accuracy of data collection is questionable (no control). Cannot look at the cause and effect.

RELIABILITY OF MEASUREMENTS.

the extent to which measures are consistent/ repeatable

Have the same result regardless of who, time, number of measurements

VALIDITY OF MEASUREMENT

The degree to which something measures what it intends to measure


IF RELIABLE DOES NOT MEAN IT IS VALID

VALIDITY of experimental studies

INTERNAL: validity of our results
EXTERNAL: generalizability

RESEARCH DESIGNS

descriptive, correlational, experimental, quasi-experimental

Descriptive studies

Describes events, people, and patterns, no manipulations, not interested in relationships / cause and effect

Can be a field experiment or a survey

Correlational study

Interested in relationships between variables - used when we are unable to manipulate variables
*CORRELATION DOES NOT IMPLY CAUSATION*

Experimental study

examine the cause and effect

1. Independent variable -\> we manipulate to see influence

2.Dependent variable -\> outcome variable, we measure what we think will be effected.

KEY FEATURES OF AN EXPERIMENTAL STUDY

Experimental Control
Random Assignment
Internal Validity
External Validity

experimental control

manipulating only the independent variable and keeping all other variables constant

random assignment

randomly assigning participants to groups and ensure no systematic difference occur between conditions

internal Validity

validity of own results

External Validity

generalizability

Quasi Experiment

used if variable cannot be manipulated or if random assignment is not possible

through for example
age
gender
personality traits
social economic status etc

*experimental control still required for other variables*

LEARNING

Learning is a change in response as a result of experience

Classical conditioning

a learning process that occurs when two stimuli are repeatedly paired: a response which is at first elicited by the second stimulus is eventually elicited by the first stimulus alone.

Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936) conditioning

discovered that dogs salivated when an individual that usually bought food to them came into a room

Phase 1 Before condition
meat powder \= salivation
tone \= orienting response

Phase 2 process of conditioning
train dog that tone \= food \= salivation

Phase 3 After conditioning
tone \= salivation

Conditioning (extinction and recovery)

The strength of a conditioned response and how long it will be remembered

Phases on conditioning

extinction
re-conditioning
spontaneous recovery

Extinction

if the conditioned stimulus (tone) continues to occur without being followed by the unconditioned stimulus (food) the conditioned response will disappear (salivating)

Re-conditioning

quick relearning of a conditioned response after extinction (parts of it retain in long term memory)

spontaneous recovery

reappearance of the conditioned response after extinction

Generalisation and discrimination of stimuli

generalisation

to have an equal response to a conditioned stimulus that is not the stimulus but similar - salivating at food and pictures of food

Discrimination

learning to differentiate among different stimuli fearing a lion and fearing a picture of a lion

Signaling of significant events (learning about appropriate responses)

timing
predictability
signal strength
Attention
bio-preparedness
higher order conditioning

Timing

the condition (tone) must come before the unconditioned stimulus (food)

Predictability

knowing that the conditioned stimulus (salivating) results because of the unconditioned stimulus (food)

Signal strength

the unconditioned stimulus (food) must have a strong effect (when you are very hungry)

Attention

focus influences which potential conditioned the response

Bio-preparedness

human beings are biologically prepared to develop certain conditioned associations (we are scared of tigers or snakes, or heights)

Higher-order conditioning

learning that a conditioned (tray of doctor instruments) stimulus signals the arrival of an unconditioned stimulus (needles/ fear)

Operant conditioning

a method of learning that employs rewards and punishments for behaviour

Edward Thorndike (Law of effect)

studied animal intelligence and the ability to solve problems by getting rats to go into a puzzle box

Law of effect

If something produces a satisfying effect it will most likely happen again when the stimulus is encountered.

Vocabulary associated with operant conditioning

Operants
Positive and negative reinforcers

Operants

an initial spontaneous response that may reinforce recurrence of the same behaviour Ex: child says "I'm hungry" and is fed.

positive reinforcement

Increasing behaviors by presenting positive stimuli, such as food. A positive reinforcer is any stimulus that, when presented after a response, strengthens the response.

negative reinforcement

Increasing behaviors by stopping or reducing negative stimuli, such as shock. A negative reinforcer is any stimulus that, when removed after a response, strengthens the response. (Note: negative reinforcement is not punishment.)

Ex: if you are on a boring date you say you have a headache and that ends the date early, on future boring dates you tend to use the same excuse.

Other kinds of conditioning

escape conditioning
avoidance conditioning

escape conditioning

learning a response to terminated an adverse stimulus Ex: taking a pill to stop pain

avoidance conditioning

preventing adverse stimulus ahead of time
Ex: moving a cup before someone knocks it over

Discrimination of stimuli

Discriminative conditioned stimuli
Stimuus discrimination

Discriminative conditioned stimuli

Whether or not reinforcements are available is a certain action is made Ex: funny jokes at work not funeral

stimulus discrimination

learning what stimulus is appropriate and what is not

Forming and strengthening operant behaviour

Shaping
secondary reinforcement
delay and size of reinforcement

Shaping

gradually reinforcing responses as they get closer to the desired response (treats for a dog)

primary reinforcement

an innately reinforcing stimulus, such as one that satisfies a biological need

secondary reinforcement

Something that you have learned to value, like money.

Delay and Size of Reinforcement

the effect of a reinforcer is stronger when it comes soon after a response occurs rather than delayed reinforcement

Ex: alcoholics stay alcoholics because they get hungover after a day rather than immediately

Schedules of reinforcement

continuous reinforcement
partial
fixed ratio
variable ratio
fixed interval
variable interval

continuous reinforcement

immediate response

Partial reinforcement

reinforced only some of the time

partial reinforcement effect

phenomenon that believes that behaviours that are learned under partial reinforcement are most difficult to extinguish than behaviours learned on continuous reinforcement

fixed ration reinforcement

reinforced after a fixed number of responses Ex: treats after every 10 laps

variable ratio reinforcement

random number reinforcement

fixed interval reinforcement

provides a reinforcement after some time has passed Ex: present every 5 hours in game

Variable interval reinforcement

amount of time varies for reward

COGNITIVE PROCESSES IN LEARNING

learned helplessness
latent learning
cognitive maps
observational learning

Learned helplessness

learning that responses do not affect consequences resulting in failure to try to control the environment

Latent learning and cognitive maps

making mistakes but learning from them

includes the development of a mind palace

Observational learning

models to learn behaviour - Bandura bobo doll

MEMORY

Basic memory processes

encoding, storage, retrieval

Ecoding memory

acquiring information and entering it into the memory

types of memory codes

Auditory memory: sounds

Visual memory: pictures

Semantic memory: experience

Storage

keeping memory over time

Retrieval

locating information stored in memory, retrieval and recognition

TYPES OF MEMORY

episodic
semantic
procedural
explicit
implicit

Episodic

specific events

semantic

generalised knowledge

procedural

sequences of movement EX: riding a bike

explicit

consciously trying to remember

implicit

unintentional recollection

EX: priming which includes improved performance from past experience

THE MODELS OF MEMORY

levels of processing model

transfer appropriate processing model

parallel distributed processing model

multiple memory systems model

information processing model

Level of processing model

what you remember depends on the extent to which you encode or process information when you first encounter it

Maintenance rehearsal: repetition temporary


Elaborate rehearsal: relating new memory to existing ones (long lasting)

transfer-appropriate processing model

a model of memory that suggests that a critical determinant of memory is how well the retrieval process matches the original encoding process

Parallel distributed processing model

New experiences change understanding

Multiple memory systems model

a model of memory that suggests that the brain contains several memory systems, each of which resides in a different area and each of which serves somewhat different purposes

Information processing model

model of memory that assumes the processing of information for memory storage is similar to the way a computer processes memory in a series of three stages

1. Sensory (one second)

2. Short term (20 seconds)

3. Long term (remains indefinitely)

DISTINGUISHING BETWEEN SHORT AND LONG TERM MEMORY

Primacy effect
Recency effect

Primacy effect

recalling the first two or three items on a list

Recency effect

recalling towards the end of a list

RETRIEVING MEMORIES

retrieval cues
context

Retrieval cues

stimuli to help retrieve information from long term

*the effectiveness of retrieval depends on "encoding specificity" - the degree to which it taps into information that was encoded at the time of learning.

Context

Context specific learning: memories that are helped by similarities or differences in environmental context.

State- dependent learning: How we feel may trigger memory recall

RETRIEVAL FROM SEMANTIC MEMORY

Networks

Networks

information retrieved from memory through spreading activation EX: magpie \= bird

RETRIEVING INCOMPLETE KNOWLEDGE

tip of the tongue phenomenon

Feeling of knowing experience

FORGETTING

Roles of decay and inference

Decay theory
inference

Decay theory

information gradually disappears from memory if not used