AP Psychology Exam Review

Flashcards from units 1 through 13

empiricism

The view that knowledge originates in experience and that science should therefore rely on observation and experimentation

structuralism

Early school of thought promoted by Wundt and Titchner; used introspection to reveal the structure of the human mind

functionalism

A school of thought promoted by James and influenced by Darwin; explored how mental and behavioral processes function--how they enable the organism to adapt, survive, and flourish

experimental psychology

The study of behavior ad thinking using the experimental method

behaviorism

The view that psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes

humanistic psychology

A historically significant perspective that emphasized the growth potential of healthy people

cognitive neuroscience

The interdisciplinary study of the brain activity linked with cognition (including perception, thinking, memory and language)

psychology

The science of behavior and mental process

nature-nurture issue

The longstanding controversy over the relative contributions that genes and experience make to the development of psychological traits and behaviors

natural selection

The principle that, among the range of inherited trait variations, those contributing to reproduction and survival will most likely be passed on to succeeding generations

levels of analysis

The differing complementary views, from biological to psychological to social-cultural, for analyzing any given phenomenon

biopsychosocial approach

An integrated approach that incorporates biological, psychological, and social-cultural levels of analysis

behavioral psychology

The scientific study of observable behavior and its explanation by principles of learning

biological psychology

The scientific study of the links between biological (genetic, neural, hormonal) and psychological processes

cognitive psychology

The scientific study of all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating

evolutionary psychology

The study of the evolution of behavior and mind using principles of natural selection

psychodynamic psychology

Studies how unconscious drives and conflicts influence behavior, and uses that information to treat people with psychological disorders

social-cultural psychology

The study of how situations and cultures affect our behavior and thinking

psychometrics

The scientific study of the measurement of human abilities, attitudes, and traits

basic research

Pure science that aims to increase the scientific knowledge base

developmental psychology

A branch of psychology that studies physical, cognitive, and social change throughout the life span

educational psychology

The study of how psychological processes affect and can enhance teaching and learning

personality psychology

The study of an individual's characteristic pattern thinking, feeling, and acting

social psychology

The scientific study of how we think about, influence, and relate to one another

applied research

Scientific study that aims to solve practical problems

industrial-organizational psychology

The application of psychological concepts and methods to optimizing human behavior in workplaces

human factors psychology

An I/O subfield that explores how people and machines interact and how machines and physical environments can be made safe and easy to use

counseling psychology

A branch psychology that assists people with problems in living and in achieving greater well-being

clinical psychology

A branch of psychology that studies, assesses, and treats people with psychological disorders

psychiatry

A branch of medicine dealing with psychological disorders; practiced by physicians who often provide medical treatments as well as psychological therapy

positive psychology

The scientific study of human functioning, with the goals of discovering and promoting strengths and virtues that help individuals and communities to thrive

community psychology

A branch of psychology that studies how people interact with social environments and how social institutions affect individuals and groups

testing effect

Long-term memory is often increased when some of the learning period is devoted to retrieving the to-be-remembered information

SQ3R

Survey, question, read, retrieve, review

debriefing

The post experimental explanation of a study, including it's purpose, and any deceptions, to its participants

informed consent

An ethical principle that research participants be told enough to enable them to choose whether they wish to participate

culture

The enduring ideas, attitudes, values, and traditions shared by a group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next

statistical significance

A statistical statement of how likely it is that an obtained result occurred by chance

inferential statistics

Numerical data that allow one to generalize-to infer from sample data the probability of something being true of a population

normal curve

A symmetrical bell shaped curve that describes the distribution of many types of data; most scores fall near the mean and fewer towards the extremes

standard deviation

A compacted measure of how much scores vary around the mean score

range

The difference between the highest and lowest scores in the distribution

skewed distribution

A representation of scores that lack symmetry around their average value

median

The middle score in a distribution; half of the scores are above it and half are below it

mean

The arithmetic average of a distribution, obtained by adding the scores and then dividing by the number of scores

mode

The most frequently occurring score in a distribution

descriptive statistics

Numerical data used to measure and describe characteristics of groups. Includes measures of central tendency and measures of variation

validity

The extent to which a test or experiment measures or predicts what it is supposed to

dependent variable

The outcome factor; the variable that may change in response to manipulations of the independent variable

confounding variable

A factor other than the independent variable that might produce an effect in an experiment

independent variable

The experimental factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied

placebo

Experimental results caused by expectations alone; any effect on behavior caused by the administration of an inert substance or condition, which the recipient assumes is an active agent

double-blind procedure

An experimental procedure in which both the research staff are ignorant about whether the research participants have received the treatment or a placebo

random assignment

Assigning participants to experimental and control groups by chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences between the different groups

control group

In an experiment, the group not exposed to the treatment contrasts with the experimental group and serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment

experimental group

In an experiment, the group exposed to the treatment, that is, to one version of the independent variable

experiment

A research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factors to observe the effect on some behavior or mental process. By random assignment of participants, the experimenter aims to control to control other relevant variables

illusory correlation

The perception of a relationship where none exists

scatterplot

A graphed cluster of dots, each of which represents the values of two variables. The slope of the point suggest the direction of the relationship between the two variables. The amount of scatter suggests the strength of the correlation

correlation coefficient

A statistical index of the relationship between two variables

correlation

A measure of the extent to which two variables change together, and thus how well either variable predicts the other

random sample

A sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion

population

All those in a group being studied, from which samples may be drawn

sampling bias

A flawed sampling process that produces an unrepresentative sample

survey

A technique for ascertaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of a particular group, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of the group

naturalistic observation

Observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation

case study

A descriptive technique in which one individual or group is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles

replication

Repealing the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic finding extends to other participants and circumstances

operational definition

A carefully worded statement of the exact procedures used in a research study

hypothesis

A testable prediction often implied by a theory

theory

An explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes observations and predicts behaviors or events

critical thinking

Thinking that does not blindly accept arguments and conclusions. Rather examine assumptions, assesses the source, discerns hidden values, evaluates evidence, assesses conclusions

hindsight bias

The tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it

neuron

A nerve cell; the basic building block of the nervous system

dendrites

A neuron's bushy, branching extensions that receive messages and conduct impulses toward the cell body

axon

The neuron extension that passes messages through its branches to other neurons or to muscles or glands

myelin sheath

A fatty tissue layer segmentally encasing the axons of some neurons; enables vastly greater transmission speed as neural impulses hop from one node to the next

action potential

A neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon

refractory period

A period of inactivity after a neuron has fired

threshold

The level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse

all-or-none response

A neuron's reaction of either firing (with a full strength response) or not firing

synapse

The junction between the axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the receiving neuron. The tiny gap at this junction is called the synaptic gap

neurotransmitters

Chemical messengers that cross the synaptic gaps between neurons. When released by the sending neuron, neurotransmitters travel across the synapse and bind to rector sites on the receiving neuron, thereby influencing whether that neuron will generate a neural impulse

reuptake

A neurotransmitter's reabsorption by the sending neuron

endorphins

"Morphine within"--natural, opiate-like neurotransmitters linked to pain control and pleasure

agonist

A molecule that by binding to a receptor site, stimulates a response

antagonist

A molecule that, by binding to a receptor site, inhibits or blocks a response

nervous system

The body's speedy, electrochemical communication network, consisting of all the nerve cells of the peripheral and central nervous systems

central nervous system

The brain and spinal cord

peripheral nervous system

The sensory and motor neurons that connect the central nervous system to the rest of the body

nerves

Bundled axons that form neural "cables" connecting the central nervous system with muscles, glands, and sense organs

sensory (afferent) neurons

Neurons that carry incoming information from the sensory receptors to the brain and spinal cord

motor (efferent) neurons

Neurons that carry outgoing information from the brain and spinal cord to the muscles and glands

interneurons

Neurons within the brain and spinal cord that communicate internally and intervene between the sensory inputs and motor outputs

somatic nervous system

The division of the peripheral nervous system that controls the body's skeletal muscles. Also called the skeletal nervous system

automatic nervous system

The part of the peripheral system that controls the glands and the muscles of the internal organs (such as heart). Its sympathetic division arouses; its parasympathetic division calms

sympathetic nervous system

The division of the automatic nervous system that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy in stressful situations

parasympathetic nervous system

The division of the automatic nervous system that calms the body, conserving its energy

reflex

A simple automatic response to a sensory stimulus

endocrine system

The body's "slow" chemical communication system; a set of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream